teachers, 191, 541
Tehran meeting (1943), 263, 269
television, 420
Tereshchenko, M.I., 57
terror, 107–8, 112, 116, 145, 185, 210, 216, 221–9, 231–2, 235, 244, 250, 275, 340, 342, 348, 381–3, 533, 567; see also purges
Thatcher, Margaret, 439, 444
Third World, 389, 398–9
Thorez, Maurice, 306
Tikhon, Patriarch, 54, 93–4, 135, 282
Tikhonov, Nikolai, 403–4, 422, 428, 434–5, 437, 439
Timashuk, Lidya, 324
timber, 4, 159
Tito, Josip Broz, 309–10, 332, 337, 340
Tizyakov, Alexander, 497, 499
Tobolsk, 54
Togliatti, Palmiro, 306, 339
Tojo, Hideki, 293
Tolmachev, V.N., 188
Tolstikov, V.S., 392
Tolstoy, Aleksei, 248–9
Tolstoy, Lev, 11, 17, 324
Tomski, Mikhail, 172, 176, 221
Torgsin organization, 193
torture: sanctioned in interrogation, 221
totalitarian theory, 235, 252
Toynbee, A., 536
tractors, 181
trade unions: set up in empire, 13; Party controversy over, 121–2; membership, 140; and labour movement, 144; Khrushchëv and, 361; holiday centres, 409–10, 421; under Yeltsin, 514; see also Free Trade Union Association
trading: private, 517, 525–6
Trans-Siberian railway, 4, 38, 103
Transcaucasian Commissariat, 83
Transcaucasian Federation, 133, 207
Transcaucasus: Soviet republics in, 114, 133; independence movements, 482; see also Caucasus
travel (abroad), 357–8, 410
Treaty on the Economic Commonwealth (1991), 506
Trotski, Lev: arrested (1905), 14; works with Bolsheviks (1917), 49; imprisoned (1917), 50, 105; and Lenin’s call for seizure of power, 59, 61; leads Red Guards, 65; forms government with Lenin, 66–7; cleverness, 72; supports Lenin, 74; negotiates peace at Brest-Litovsk, 76–7; revolutionary aims, 82; Jewishness, 85, 201; and civil war, 101, 106; and Czechoslovak Legion, 103; background and character, 104–6; denounces Lenin for split with Mensheviks, 104; organizes Red Army, 104–6, 112; in Petrograd soviet, 104–5; demands immediate socialism, 105; advocates terror, 107, 112; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; antipathy to Stalin, 112; in Politburo, 112; proposes labour armies, 120; imposes tax-in-kind, 121; proposals on unions, 121–2; supports NEP, 125; and Church, 135; on writers, 138; opposes NEP, 150–52; Lenin seeks support from, 151; planning principles, 151, 154–7; Lenin criticizes in political testament, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5; Party hostility to, 156–5; and stabilization of capital, 159; in United Opposition, 160–61, 164; suppressed, 161; attacks Politburo foreign policy, 162; expelled from Party and exiled, 162, 164; calls for higher industrial prices, 164; deported, 176; accused of spying (1935), 216; supporters purged and sentenced, 216, 223; contact with clandestine groups in Russia, 218; assassinated, 231; denounced, 238; Khrushchëv declines to rehabilitate, 341; The New Course, 156; Terrorism and Communism, 112
Trubetskoi, Nikolai, 128
Truman, Harry S., 272–3, 308, 312
Tsaritsyn see Stalingrad
Tsereteli, Irakli, 35–7, 49, 51
Tsushima, Battle of (1905), 14
Tsvetaeva, Marina, 248
Tukhachevski, Marshal Mikhail, 125, 127, 220, 240
Turgenev, Ivan, 11, 17
Turkestani Region, 115
Turkey: 1877–8 war with Russia, 1, 10; and Russian civil war, 102; wins provinces, 128; and Soviet Muslims, 133; in World War II, 258 ; US missile bases in, 374
Turkmenistan (and Turkmenia), 228, 490, 503, 506
Tuva, 521
Tvardovski, Alexander, 366
Tverdokhlebov, Andrei, 382
Typhoon, Operation (1941), 261
U-2 spy plane (US), 353
Uglanov, Nikolai, 172, 176
Ukraine: Russians in, 23, 520; Tsereteli proposed autonomy for, 37; Central Rada, 40–41, 49, 60, 75; Bolsheviks repress, 75; lost in 1918 peace agreement, 77–8, 84; 1917 grain production, 79; Lenin’s 1917 manifesto to, 83; land ownership in, 86; civil war in, 101; Soviet republic established, 107, 113, 114; collectivization, 109; Piłsudski invades, 120; status, 129; nationalism, 132, 367–8, 457–8; famine (1932–3), 184, 202, 207; education in, 190, 203; and collectivization, 202; repression in, 202–3; in World War II, 261, 264, 266–7, 269, 277, 283, 287, 339; post- World War II guerrillas in, 299; post-World War II deportations, 300; post-World War II famine, 304; post-World War II settlement, 306; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 367–8; dissenters tried (1965), 390; and Chernobyl disaster, 445; Gorbachëv visits, 456; independence movement, 481–2; non-cooperation with State Committee for the Emergency Situation, 503; referendum votes for independence (1991), 506–7; after communism, 535, 555, 570
Ukrainian Autocephalous Church, 203, 369
Ukrainian language, 316
Ulyanov family, 71
Ulyanov, Alexander (Lenin’s brother), 71
Ulyanov, Vladimir see Lenin, Vladimir I.
Ulyanova, Maria (Lenin’s sister), 153
unemployment, 55, 170, 356
‘Union Bureau’, 185
Union of Landowners, 39
Union for the Liberation of Ukraine, 200
Union of Right Forces (party), 561
Union of the Russian People, 11, 53
Union of Sovereign States: proposed, 505–7
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR): formed, 132–3; Constitution, 133 , 152; Western dislike of, 170, 398; post-World War II status, 294–5; rivalry with USA, 294, 301–2, 310, 312–13, 330, 336, 400; World War II damage and casualties, 295; in Cold War with USA, 312–13; at Stalin’s death, 328; as super-power, 397, 551; and détente with West, 399; Yeltsin’s proposals for, 505–6; ends, 507, 509–10; achievements, 550–51; passing regretted, 529; see also Commonwealth of Independent States
Union Treaty (Novo-Ogarëvo agreement, 1991), 494–9, 506
Union of Writers: Congresses, (1934), 248; (1986), 448
Union of Writers of the RSFSR, 480
united front: Comintern disavows, 178
United Nations: formed, 294; and Korean war, 312; Gorbachëv addresses Assembly (1988), 465, 468
United Opposition, 160–62, 164
United Russia (party), 552–3, 559
United States of America: and World War I, 78; and Russian civil war, 102; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; in World War II, 268, 277; sends wartime supplies to USSR, 269; and post-World War II European settlement, 271; in war against Japan, 272; Soviet wartime suspicion of, 280; post-war rivalry with USSR (‘Cold War’), 294, 301, 302, 310, 312–13, 330, 336, 400; foreign policy hardens, 308; and Korean war, 312, 330; Eastern Europe an policy, 330; Khrushchëv’s policy on, 352–4; Khrushchëv visits, 353; threatens nuclear retaliation, 353; Khrushchëv attacks, 362; and Cuba missile crisis, 374; and nuclear control, 388; and détente with USSR, 399; relations with China, 399–400; and Vietnam War, 399; and Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 411; Andropov suggests mutual accords with, 432; and Gorbachëv, 444, 464–5, 496; Clinton–Yeltsin ‘partnership’, 536
Unity (party), 552
universities, 141, 321
Urals Republic, 521
Urals-Siberian method, 174
urbanization, 245–6, 328, 421
Usov, Vladimir, 501
Ustinov, Dmitri, 236, 404, 426, 428, 431, 434
Uzbekistan: nationalism, 131, 391, 474; education in, 190; scandals in, 456; ethnic violence, 481–2; declares sovereignty (1990), 489–90; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; resistance to reform, 553
Uzbeks: birth rate, 422; riots with Meshketian Turks, 481
Valentinov, Nikolai, 71
Vareikis, I.M., 213