The arrival and rapid development of the internal-combustion engine in the 1920s transformed the collection and distribution of goods and personal travel. Roads were built, particularly in North and Southern Africa but also in parts of the west and east. World Bank loans since the 1950s, supplementing contributions to road and highway development from national budgets, have financed the building and improvement of road networks in many African countries. Rail transport
The early railways were constructed partly to facilitate the administration of interior regions and to bring supplies from ports to central consumption or distribution points and partly—especially in the south—to enable valuable minerals or commodities to reach the coast for export. In Africa, as in Europe and North America, the major period of railway development extended from the end of the 19th century to the end of World War I. This expansion, however, was not coordinated: railways with different gauges of track were built and were operated with rolling stock of different braking and coupling systems. Thus, the colonizing powers left a difficult and costly legacy for independent African countries who wished to link themselves together. As with roads, rail networks have been improved considerably since the 1960s and, as a result, there has been a lowering of transport costs. Air transport
Air transport is well suited to Africa’s geographic vastness, and it has become the primary means of international and sometimes of national travel in Africa. During the late 1940s and the ’50s, as great advances were made in the extension and improvement of rail and road services, a new transport factor emerged in the introduction of internal and international scheduled air services. The rapid development of air transport increased the movement of goods and people and began to open up the hitherto largely closed interior of the continent. Transport became much quicker and usually cheaper. Since then, internal air services have steadily increased, and intercontinental air transport, especially of passengers, has developed greatly. The largest international airports include those at Casablanca, Morocco; Las Palmas, Canary Islands; Cairo, Egypt; Dakar, Senegal; Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire; Lagos, Nigeria; Douala, Cameroon; Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Nairobi, Kenya; and Johannesburg, South Africa. Navigation
Historically, throughout the vast interior between the Sahara and the Zambezi River, people or goods were transported by canoe or boat on the great river systems of the Nile, Sénégal, Niger, Congo, Ubangi, and Zambezi rivers and on the few but very large lakes. Where conditions allowed, engine-powered craft later supplemented or displaced canoes, but further development of water transport has been slight. Also notable were the construction of lake ports and the installation of rail ferries across Lake Victoria.
Meanwhile, on the coasts, artificial harbours have been developed. New berths have been added to established port facilities, and a number of ports have been constructed. In planning new ports, the choice of site, probable costs, and the possibilities of using containers or other unitized loads have been taken into consideration. Robert K.A. Gardiner Akinlawon Ladipo Mabogunje
Citation Information
Article Title: Africa
Website Name: Encyclopaedia Britannica
Publisher: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Date Published: 23 January 2019
URL: https://www.britannica.com/place/Africa
Access Date: August 07, 2019
Additional Reading General works
Overviews of the continent may be found in R. Mansell Prothero (ed.), A Geography of Africa, rev. ed. (1973); John I. Clarke (ed.), An Advanced Geography of Africa (1975); William A. Hance, The Geography of Modern Africa, 2nd ed. (1975); Alan C.G. Best and Harm J. De Blij, African Survey (1977); R.J. Harrison Church et al., Africa and the Islands, 4th ed. (1977); A.T. Grove, Africa, 3rd ed. (1978), and The Changing Geography of Africa (1989); John M. Pritchard, Africa: A Study Geography for Advanced Students, rev. 3rd ed. (1979, reissued 1993); Maria Grosz-Ngaté, John H. Hanson, and Patrick O’Meara (eds.), Africa, 4th ed. (2014); Paul Bohannan and Philip Curtin, Africa and the Africans, 4th ed. (1995); and Alan B. Mountjoy and David Hilling, Africa: Geography and Development (1988). Roland Oliver and Michael Crowder (eds.), The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Africa (1981), is also useful. Regine Van Chi-Bonnardel, The Atlas of Africa (1973), presents general physical and thematic maps, as well as maps and text for each country. Jocelyn Murray (ed.), Cultural Atlas of Africa, rev. ed. (1988), includes maps and text on Africa’s physical geography, culture, history, language, and social life. General treatments of European exploration in Africa are contained in Heinrich Schiffers, The Quest for Africa: Two Thousand Years of Exploration (1957; originally published in German, 1954); and Robert I. Rotberg (ed.), Africa and Its Explorers: Motives, Methods, and Impact (1970). Useful annuals that contain historical overviews of each African country and updated essays on the continent’s political, social, and economic developments include The Middle East and North Africa; Africa South of the Sahara; and Africa Contemporary Record. Davidson S.H.W. Nicol The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Geologic history
General discussions of African geology may be found in L. Cahen and N.J. Snelling, The Geochronology and Evolution of Africa (1984); and Adetoye Faniran, African Landforms (1986). Books and essays on specific aspects include Bernard Bessoles, Géologie de l’Afrique: le craton ouest africain (1977); Russell Black, “Precambrian of West Africa,” Episodes, 4:3–8 (1980); M. Deynoux, J. Sougy, and R. Trompette, “Lower Palaeozoic Rocks of West Africa and the Western Part of Central Africa,” in C.H. Holland (ed.), Lower Palaeozoic of North-western and West-central Africa (1985), pp. 337–495; A. Kröner, “The Precambrian Geotectonic Evolution of Africa: Plate Accretion Versus Plate Destruction,” Precambrian Research, 4(2):163–213; A. Kröner et al., “Pan-African Crustal Evolution in the Nubian Segment of Northeast Africa,” in A. Kröner (ed.), Proterozoic Lithospheric Evolution (1987), pp. 235–257; A.J. Tankard et al., Crustal Evolution of Southern Africa: 3.8 Billion Years of Earth History (1982); J.R. Vail, “Outline of the Geochronology and Tectonic Units of the Basement Complex of Northeast Africa,” Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A, 350(1660):127–141 (1976); and J.B. Wright (ed.), Geology and Mineral Resources of West Africa (1985). Alfred Kröner The land
Descriptions of Africa’s physical geography can be found in the general works listed above and in M.F. Thomas and G.W. Whittington (eds.), Environment and Land Use in Africa (1969). William G. McGinnies, Bram J. Goldman, and Patricia Paylore (eds.), Deserts of the World (1968, reprinted 1992), includes detailed appraisals of research on the physiography, hydrology, soils, weather and climate, vegetation, and fauna of the Kalahari, Namib, and Sahara. A comprehensive account of the geomorphology of Africa is given in Lester C. King, The Morphology of the Earth, 2nd ed. (1967), pp. 241–309. Regional geographies include Jean Despois and René Raynal, Géographie de l’Afrique du nord-ouest (1967, reissued 1975); R.J. Harrison Church, West Africa: A Study of the Environment and of Man’s Use of It, 8th ed. (1980); Reuben K. Udo, A Comprehensive Geography of West Africa (1978, reprinted 1982), and The Human Geography of Tropical Africa (1982, reprinted 1992); Jacques Denis, Pierre Vennetier, and Jules Wilmet, L’Afrique centrale et orientale (1971); John H. Wellington, Southern Africa, 2 vol. (1955); and A.J. Christopher, Southern Africa (1976). The role of geography and climate in the development of the people and the history of sub-Saharan Africa is examined in Robert O. Collins and James M. Burns (eds.), A History of Sub-Saharan Africa, 2nd ed. (2014). Robert Walter Steel The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica