Indus River Trans-Himalayan river of southern Asia. It is one of the world’s longest rivers, with a length of 1,800 mi (2,900 km). Its annual flow of 272 billion cu yd (207 billion cu m) is twice that of the Nile. It rises in southwestern Tibet and flows northwest through valleys of the
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industrial and organizational relations ► industry I 939
Himalayas. After crossing into the Kashmir region, it continues northwest¬ ward through the Indian- and Pakistani-administered areas and then turns south into Pakistan. Swelled by tributaries from the Punjab region, includ¬ ing the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, it widens and flows more slowly. It has supplied water for irrigation on the plains of Pakistan since early times.
industrial and organizational relations or organizational relations Study of human behaviour in the workplace, focusing espe¬ cially on the influence such relations have on an organization’s produc¬ tivity. Classical economics viewed workers as instruments of production, subject to the laws of supply and demand. Industrial relations did not become the subject of scholarly attention until the late 1920s, when Elton Mayo (1880-1949) studied productivity at Western Electric Co.’s Haw¬ thorne Works. Concluding that merely being chosen to participate in the study improved workers’ productivity (the “Hawthorne effect”), Mayo became the first scholar to show workers responding to psychosocial stimuli. Other aspects of industrial and organizational relations include human resources management, which involves the development of job descriptions and organizational structures; recruiting, training, and gen¬ eral oversight of employees; negotiating terms of employment, planning for the future, and the study of managerial styles.
industrial design Design of products made by large-scale industry for mass distribution. Among the considerations for such products are structure, operation, appearance, and conformance to production, distri¬ bution, and selling procedures; appearance is the principal consideration in industrial design. The International Council of Societies of Industrial Design was founded in London in 1957 and within 25 years had mem¬ bers in more than 40 countries. Two significant trends have persisted: streamlining, a design principle pioneered by Raymond Loewy and others in the 1930s; and planned obsolescence, design changes that tempt own¬ ers to replace goods with new purchases more frequently than would nor¬ mally be necessary.
industrial ecology Discipline that traces the flow of energy and mate¬ rials from their natural resources through manufacture, the use of prod¬ ucts, and their final recycling or disposal. Research in industrial ecology began in the early 1990s. Life-cycle analysis traces the flow of materials; design for the environment works to minimize energy use, pollution, and waste. Industrial ecologists aim to create industries in which every waste is a raw material for another product.
industrial engineering Application of engineering principles and techniques of scientific management to the maintenance of high levels of productivity at optimum cost in industrial enterprises. Frederick W. Taylor pioneered in the scientific measurement of work, and Frank (1868-1924) and Lillian (1878-1972) Gilbreth refined it with time-and-motion studies. As a result, production processes were simplified, enabling workers to increase production. The industrial engineer selects tools and materials for production that are most efficient and least costly to the company. The engineer may also determine the sequence of production and the design of plant facilities or factories. See also ergonomics.
industrial espionage Acquisition of trade secrets from business competitors. Industrial spying is a reaction to the efforts of many busi¬ nesses to keep secret their designs, formulas, manufacturing processes, research, and future plans. Trade secrets may find their way into the open market through disloyal employees or through various other means. Pen¬ alties against those found guilty range from an injunction against further use of the knowledge to substantial damages. See also patent.
industrial medicine or occupational medicine Branch of medi¬ cine dealing with workers’ health and the prevention and treatment of diseases and injuries in the workplace. Workplace hazards include expo¬ sure to dangerous materials including asbestos and coal dust, radiation exposure, and machinery capable of causing injuries ranging from minor to life-threatening. Industrial medical programs mandate protective devices around machines’ moving parts, proper ventilation of work areas, use of less toxic materials, containment of production processes, and pro¬ tective equipment and clothing. Good industrial medical programs improve labour-management relations, increase workers’ overall health and productivity, and reduce insurance costs.
industrial melanism Vme-lo-.ni-zonA Darkness of the skin, feathers, or fur developed by a population of animals living in an industrial region where the environment is soot-darkened. The melanization of a popula¬
tion increases the probability that its members will survive and reproduce because it offers protection in the form of camouflage; it takes place over the course of many generations as the result of natural selection of the lighter, more conspicuous animals by predators.
industrial-organizational psychology or 1-0 psychology
Application of the concepts and methods of experimental, clinical, and social psychology to the workplace. 1-0 psychologists are concerned with such matters as personnel evaluation and placement, job analysis, worker- management relations (including morale and job satisfaction), workforce training and development (including leadership training), and productiv¬ ity improvement. They may work closely with business managers, indus¬ trial engineers, and human-resources professionals.
Industrial Revolution Process of change from an agrarian, handicraft economy to one dominated by industry and machine manufacture. It began in England in the 18th century. Technological changes included the use of iron and steel, new energy sources, the invention of new machines that increased production (including the steam engine and the spinning jenny), the development of the factory system, and important develop¬ ments in transportation and communication (including the railroad and the telegraph). The Industrial Revolution was largely confined to Britain from 1760 to 1830 and then spread to Belgium and France. Other nations lagged behind, but, once Germany, the U.S., and Japan achieved indus¬ trial power, they outstripped Britain’s initial successes. Eastern European countries lagged into the 20th century, and not until the mid-20th century did the Industrial Revolution spread to such countries as China and India. Industrialization effected changes in economic, political, and social orga¬ nization. These included a wider distribution of wealth and increased international trade; political changes resulting from the shift in economic power; sweeping social changes that included the rise of working-class movements, the development of managerial hierarchies to oversee the division of labour, and the emergence of new patterns of authority; and struggles against externalities such as industrial pollution and urban crowding.