Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) known as the Wob- blies Radical labour organization founded in Chicago in 1905. The founders, who opposed the moderate policies of the AFL (see AFL-CIO), included William Haywood of the Western Federation of Miners, Daniel De Leon of the Socialist Labor Party, and Eugene V. Debs. In 1908 the IWW split, and a militant group led by Haywood prevailed. To reach its goal of worker control of the means of production, it advocated general strikes, boycotts, and sabotage. Its tactics led to arrests and adverse publicity, though it made gains through strikes in the mining and lumber industries. It opposed U.S. participation in World War I, and some of its leaders were prosecuted. By the 1920s membership had dwindled greatly.
industrialization Process of converting to a socioeconomic order in which industry is dominant. The changes that took place in Britain dur¬ ing the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th and 19th century led the way for the early industrializing nations of western Europe and North America. Industrialization entailed both technology and profound social develop¬ ments. The freeing of labourers from feudal and customary obligations created a free market in labour, with a pivotal role for the entrepreneur. Cities attracted large numbers of people, massing workers in new indus¬ trial towns and factories. Later industrializers attempted to manipulate some of the elements: the Soviet Union eliminated the entrepreneur; Japan stimulated and sustained the entrepreneur’s role; Denmark and New Zealand industrialized primarily by commercializing and mechanizing agriculture.
industry Group of productive organizations that produce or supply goods, services, or sources of income. In economics, industries are cus¬ tomarily classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary; secondary industries are further classified as heavy and light. Primary industry includes agricul¬ ture, forestry, fishing, mining, quarrying, and extracting minerals. Second¬ ary or manufacturing industry processes the raw materials supplied by primary industries into consumer goods, or further processes goods from other secondary industries, or builds capital goods used to manufacture consumer and nonconsumer goods; secondary industry also includes energy-producing industries and the construction industry. Tertiary or ser¬ vice industry includes banking, finance, insurance, investment, and real estate services; wholesale, retail, and resale trade; transportation, informa¬ tion, and communications services; professional, consulting, legal, and personal services; tourism, hotels, restaurants, and entertainment; repair
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and maintenance services; education and teaching; and health, social wel¬ fare, administrative, police, security, and defense services.
Indy \a n -'de\, (Paul-Marie-Theodore-) Vincent d' (b. March 27, 1851, Paris, France—d. Dec. 1, 1931, Paris) French composer and teacher. Trained in organ and composition, he rejected the prevailing French style as frivolous by comparison with the German musical tradition. He wrote several important stage works, including Fervaal (1895) and The Legend of Saint Christopher (1915), but orchestral works such as Symphony on a French Mountain Air (1886), Summer Day in the Mountains (1905), and Istar (1896) remain better known. In 1894 he cofounded the music academy called the Schola Cantorum in Paris, where many of France’s foremost composers and musicians would be trained.
inequality In mathematics, a statement of an order relationship— greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, or less than or equal to—between two numbers or algebraic expressions. Inequalities can be posed either as questions, much like equations, and solved by similar techniques, or as statements of fact in the form of theorems. For example, the triangle inequality states that the sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is greater than or equal to the length of the remaining side. Mathematical analysis relies on many such inequalities (e.g., the Cauchy- Schwarz inequality) in the proofs of its most important theorems.
inert gas See noble gas
inertia U-'nor-shoV Inherent property of a body that makes it oppose any force that would cause a change in its motion. A body at rest and a body in motion both oppose forces that might cause acceleration. The inertia of a body can be measured by its mass, which governs its resistance to the action of a force, or by its moment of inertia about a specified axis, which measures its resistance to the action of a torque about the same axis.
inertia, moment of Quantitative measure of the rotational inertia of a body. As a rotating body spins about an external or internal axis (either fixed or unfixed), it opposes any change in the body’s speed of rotation that may be caused by a torque. It is defined as the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the mass of each particle of matter in a given body by the square of its distance from the axis of rotation.
inertial guidance system An electronic system that continuously monitors the position, velocity, and acceleration of a vehicle, usually a submarine, missile, or airplane, and thus provides navigational data or control. The basic components of an inertial guidance system are gyro¬ scopes, accelerometers, and a computer.
infancy In humans, the period of life between birth and the acquisition of language usually one to two years later. The average newborn infant weighs 7.5 lbs (3.4 kg) and is about 20 in (51 cm) long. At birth, infants display a set of inherited reflexes involving such acts as sucking, blink¬ ing, and grasping. They are sensitive to light-dark visual contrasts and movements and show a noticeable preference for gazing at the human face; they also begin to recognize the human voice. By 4 months of age most babies are able to sit up, and most begin crawling in 7-10 months; by 12 months most are able to start walking. Virtually all infants begin to comprehend some words several months before they themselves speak their first meaningful words.
infanticide Killing of the newborn. Infanticide has often been inter¬ preted as a primitive method of birth control and a means of ridding a group of its weak or undesirable children; but most societies actively wel¬ come children and put them to death (or allow them to die) only under exceptional circumstances—e.g., when there is little or no likelihood of being able to provide support. As late as the 18th century in European countries unwanted infants were disposed of by abandonment and expo¬ sure. Firstborn sacrifice, or the offering of one’s most precious possession to the deities, is known from the Bible and from the histories of Egypt, Greece, Rome, and India.
infantile paralysis See poliomyelitis
infantry Troops who fight on foot. The term applies both to soldiers armed with hand weapons such as the spear and sword in ancient times and to troops armed with automatic rifles and rocket launchers in mod¬ ern times. Their objective has always been to seize and hold ground and, when necessary, to occupy enemy territory. Apart from the temporary dominance of cavalry in the feudal period, it has been the largest single element in Western armies since ancient times.
infection Invasion of the body by various agents—including bacteria, fungi (see fungus), protozoans, viruses, and worms —and its reaction to them or their toxins. Infections are called subclinical until they percepti¬ bly affect health, when they become infectious diseases. Infection can be local (e.g., an abscess), confined to one body system (e.g., pneumonia in the lungs), or generalized (e.g., septicemia). Infectious agents can enter the body by inhalation, ingestion, sexual transmission, passage to a fetus dur¬ ing pregnancy or birth, wound contamination, or animal or insect bites. The body responds with an attack on the invader by leukocytes, produc¬ tion of antibodies or antitoxins, and often a rise in temperature. The anti¬ bodies may result in short-term or lifelong immunity. Despite significant progress in preventing and treating infectious diseases, they remain a major cause of illness and death, particularly in regions of poor sanita¬ tion, poor nutrition, and crowding.