Inniskilling See Enniskillen
Innocent III orig. Lothar of Segni (b. 1160/61, Gavignano Castle, Campagna di Roma, Papal States—d. July 16, 1216, Perugia) Pope (1198- 1216). Innocent, who was trained in both theology and law, brought the medieval papacy to the height of its prestige and power. He crowned Otto IV as Holy Roman emperor, but Otto’s determination to unite Germany and Sicily angered him, and in 1212 he gave his support to the Hohen- staufen candidate, Frederick II. After Innocent excommunicated King John of England for refusing to recognize Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury, John was obliged to submit and to declare England a fief of the Holy See (1213). Innocent launched the Fourth Crusade, which cap¬ tured Constantinople, and the Albigensian Crusade, which attempted to suppress heresy in southern France. He approved the Mendicant orders founded by St. Dominic and St. Francis of Assisi, and he convoked the fourth Lateran Council, which promulgated the doctrine of transubstantia- tion and endorsed annual confession for all Christians.
Innocent IV orig. Sinibaldo Fieschi (b. 12th century, Genoa—d. Dec. 7, 1254, Naples) Pope (1243-54). His clash with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II formed an important chapter in the conflict between papacy and empire. Frederick wanted the newly elected pope to lift his excommunication, but Innocent interrupted the negotiations and fled Rome for France (1244); he later condemned Frederick and urged the election of a new emperor. Concerned with the evangelization of the East, he persuaded Louis IX to lead a Crusade and sent a mission to the Mon¬ gols. He returned to Rome in 1253 and gave the Sicilian throne to Edmund, son of Henry III of England, but the papal army was defeated by Manfred, Frederick’s son, in 1254.
innovation In technology, an improvement to something already exist¬ ing. Distinguishing an element of novelty in an invention remains a con¬ cern of patent law. The Renaissance was a period of unusual innovation: Leonardo da Vinci produced ingenious designs for submarines, airplanes, and helicopters and drawings of elaborate trains of gears and of the pat¬ terns of flow in liquids. Technology provided science with instruments that greatly enhanced its powers, such as Galileo’s telescope. New sci¬ ences have also contributed to technology, as in the theoretical prepara¬ tion for the invention of the steam engine. In the 20th century, innovations in semiconductor technology increased the performance and decreased the cost of electronic materials and devices by a factor of a million, an achievement unparalleled in the history of any technology.
Inns of Court Four societies of British students and practitioners of law that have the exclusive right to admit people to practice. The four are Lincoln’s Inn, Gray’s Inn, Inner Temple, and Middle Temple. All are located in London and trace their origins to the Middle Ages. Until the 17 th century, when the Inn of Chancery developed (for training in the framing of writs and other legal documents used in the courts of chan¬ cery, or equity courts), the Inns of Court had a monopoly over legal edu¬ cation. By the 19th century, modem law schools had emerged.
Innsbruck City (pop., 2001: 113,392), on the Inn River in western Aus¬ tria, southwest of Salzburg. A small market town in the 12th century, it was located beside a bridge ( Briicke) over the Inn. It was chartered in 1239, passed to the Habsburgs in 1363, and in 1420 became the capital of Tirol. Napoleon gave the city to Bavaria in 1806, and in 1809 it was the site of an uprising of Tirolian patriots against the Bavarians and the French. The old town has narrow streets lined with medieval houses and arcades. A winter sports centre, Innsbruck was the site of the Winter Olympic Games in 1964 and 1976.
Inonu \i-nce-'mE\ A Ismet (b. Sept. 24, 1884, Smyrna, Ottoman Empire—d. Dec. 25, 1973, Ankara, Tur.) Turkish army officer and states¬ man. On the surrender of the Ottoman Empire in World War I (1918), he
was undersecretary of war. He became prime minister in 1923, and presi¬ dent and permanent chairman of the Republican People’s Party in 1938 on Mustafa Kemal AtatOrk’s death. In 1950 he was replaced as president by Celal Bayar and led the opposition, assuming the role of defender of democracy. Following a 1960 coup d’etat, he formed three coalition gov¬ ernments, but in the 1965 and 1969 elections his party suffered over¬ whelming defeats.
inorganic compound Any substance in which two or more chemi¬ cal elements other than carbon are combined, nearly always in definite proportions (see bonding), as well as some compounds containing carbon but lacking carbon-carbon bonds (e.g., carbonates, cyanides). Inorganic compounds may be classified by the elements or groups they contain (e.g., oxides, sulfates). The major classes of inorganic polymers are silicones, silanes, silicates, and borates. Coordination compounds (or complexes), an important subclass of inorganic compounds, consist of molecules with a central metal atom (usually a transition element) bonded to one or more nonmetallic ligands (inorganic, organic, or both) and are often intensely coloured. See also organic compound.
inosilicate Un-o-'si-b-kot, .I-no-'si-ta-koA or chain silicate Any of a class of inorganic compounds that have structures characterized by sili¬ cate tetrahedrons (a central silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms at the corners of a tetrahedron) arranged in chains. Two of the oxygen atoms of each tetrahedron are shared with other tetrahedrons, forming a chain that is potentially infinite in length. Mineral examples include the pyroxenes and the amphiboles.
Inoue Enryd Ve-'no-ii-e-'en-'ryoX (b. March 18, 1858, Echigo province, Japan—d. June 6, 1919, Dairen, Manchuria) Japanese philosopher. After studying at the main temple of Pure Land Buddhism in Japan, he earned a degree in philosophy at Tokyo Imperial University. He opposed the Westernization of Japan and the conversion of officials to Christianity. He founded the Philosophical Institute in 1887 to promote the study of Bud¬ dhism. As part of his campaign to rid Japan of superstitions associated with folklore and mythology, he established the Ghost Lore Institute in Tokyo.
input-output analysis Economic analysis developed by Wassily Leontief, in which the interdependence of an economy’s various productive sectors is observed by viewing the product of each industry both as a com¬ modity for consumption and as a factor in the production of itself and other goods. For example, input-output analysis will break down a nation’s total production of trucks, showing that some trucks are used in the production of more trucks, some in farming, some in the production of houses, and so on. An input-output analysis is usually summarized in a gridlike table showing what various industries buy from and sell to one another.
Inquisition In the Middle Ages, a judicial procedure that was used to combat heresy; in early modern times, a formal Roman Catholic judicial institution. Inquisito, a Latin term meaning investigation or inquest, was a legal procedure that involved the assemblage of evidence and the pros¬ ecution of a criminal trial. Use of the procedure against the heresies of the Cathari and Waldenses was approved by Pope Gregory IX in 1231. Suspected heretics were arrested, interrogated, and tried; the use of tor¬ ture was approved by Innocent IV in 1252. Penalties ranged from prayer and fasting to imprisonment; convicted heretics who refused to recant could be executed by lay authorities. Medieval inquisitors functioned widely in northern Italy and southern France. The Spanish Inquisition was authorized by Sixtus IV in 1478; the pope later tried to limit its powers but was opposed by the Spanish crown. The auto-da-fe, the public ceremony at which sentences were pronounced, was an elaborate celebration, and the grand inquisitor Tomas de Torquemada was responsible for burning about 2,000 heretics at the stake. The Spanish Inquisition was also intro¬ duced into Mexico, Peru, Sicily (1517), and the Netherlands (1522), and it was not entirely suppressed in Spain until the early 19th century.