© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Iranian religions ► Ireland I 957
northwestern Pakistan) and the 10 or so Pamir languages (in eastern Tajikistan and adjacent parts of Afghanistan and China). The northeast¬ ern group includes Ossetic, spoken by the Ossetes in the central Cauca¬ sus Mountains, and Yaghnobi, formerly spoken in a single valley of the Pamirs. Nearly all the Modern Iranian languages have been written—if at all—in adaptations of the Arabic alphabet.
Iranian religions Ancient religions of the peoples of the Iranian pla¬ teau. The Medes and Persians were dominated by a powerful priestly tribe, the magi. The magi were responsible for chanting accounts of the origin and descent of the gods, and they were probably the source of the dualism that later characterized Zoroastrianism, the best known of the Iranian reli¬ gions. The chief god of the pre-Zoroastrian pantheon was Ahura Mazda, the creator of the universe and the one who maintains the cosmic and social order. Mithra was the second most important deity and the protec¬ tor of covenants. Other major deities included Anahita, the war goddess; Rashnu, the god of justice; and astral deities such as Tishtrya, identified with the star Sirius. The ancient Iranians did not build temples or make images of their gods, preferring to worship in the open. The central ritual was the ycizna, which consisted of a festive meal at which the worshipers made animal sacrifices and invited the deity to attend as a guest. Fire was regarded as a sacred element. The sacred drink hauma, which contained a mind-altering drug, was used to inspire worshipers with insight into truth and to stimulate warriors going into battle.
Iraq officially Republic of Iraq Country, Middle East, southwestern Asia, northwest of the Persian Gulf. Area: 167,618 sq mi (434,128 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 27,818,000. Capitaclass="underline" Baghdad. The population con¬
sists mainly of an Arab majority and a Kur- Dish minority. Language: Arabic (official). Religions: Islam (official; mostly Shfite); also Christianity. Currency: dinar. The country can be divided into four major regions: the Tigris-Euphrates alluvial plains in central and southeastern Iraq; Al-Jazlrah, an upland region in the north between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; deserts in the west and south, covering about two-fifths of the country; and highlands in the northeast. Iraq has the world’s sec¬ ond largest proven reserves of petroleum, and it has substantial reserves of natural gas. Agriculture is also a major component of the economy. Iraq has a transitional government with one legislative house; its head of state is the president. Called Mesopotamia in Classical times, the region gave rise to the world’s earliest civilizations, including those of Sumer, Akkad, and Babylon. Conquered by Alexander the Great in 331 bc, the area later became a battleground between Romans and Parthians, then between Sasanians and Byzantines. Arab Muslims conquered it in the 7th century ad, and various Muslim dynasties ruled until the Mongols took over in
The Ottoman Empire took control in the 16th century and ruled until the British occupied the country during World War I (1914-18). The Brit¬ ish created the kingdom of Iraq in 1921 and occupied Iraq again during World War II (1939-45). The monarchy was restored following the war, but a revolution caused its downfall in 1958. Following a series of mili¬ tary coups, the socialist Ba'th Party, eventually led by Saddam Hussein, took control and established totalitarian rule in 1968. The I ran-Iraq War in the 1980s and the First Persian Gulf War in 1990-91 caused extensive death and destruction. The economy languished under a UN economic embargo imposed on Iraq in the 1990s. The embargo began to erode by the early 21st century, and in 2003, during the Second Persian Gulf War, the Ba'th Party was driven from power.
Irbid Town (pop., 1994: 208,329), northern Jordan. Built on Early Bronze Age settlements, it may have been the biblical city of Beth Arbel and the Arbila of the ancient Decapolis. Modern Irbid is one of Jordan’s industrial areas and an agricultural centre. The many springs in the area, in addition to the YarmOk River, provide water for irrigation. It is the home of Yarmuk University.
Iredell \ , Ir-,del\, James (b. Oct. 5, 1751, Lewes, Sussex, Eng.—d. Oct. 20, 1799, Edenton, N.C., U.S.) U.S. jurist. His family immigrated to North Carolina, where he was appointed comptroller of the customhouse at age 17. He helped draft and revise the laws of the new state of North Carolina and served as state attorney general (1779-81). He led the state’s Federal¬ ists in supporting ratification of the U.S. Constitution, and his letters in its defense (signed “Marcus”) are said to have prompted Pres. George Wash¬ ington to appoint him to the U.S. Supreme Court (1790). He wrote several notable dissents, including those for Chisholm v. Georgia (1793; affirming the subordination of the states to the federal government) and Ware v. Hyl¬ ton (1796; upholding the primacy of U.S. treaties over state statutes). His opinion in Calder v. Bull (1798) helped establish the principle of judicial review five years before it was actually tested in Marburyv. Madison.
Ireland Country, western Europe, occupying the greater part of the island of Ireland west of Great Britain. Area: 27,133 sq mi (70,273 sq km). Popu¬ lation (2005 est.): 4,096,000. Capitaclass="underline" Dublin. The northeastern portion of
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9 2002 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ir
the island is occupied by Northern Ireland.
Although Ireland has been invaded and colonized by Celts, Norsemen, Normans,
English, and Scots, ethnic distinctions are nonexistent. Languages: Irish, English
(both official). Religion: Christianity (predominantly Roman Catholic; also Protestant). Currency: euro. Ireland’s topography consists largely of broad lowlands drained by rivers that include the Shannon; its coasts are fringed with mountains. Nearly three-fifths of the population is urban; agriculture
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
958 I Ireland ► Irish literary renaissance
employs only a small percentage of the workforce. High technology, tour¬ ism, and other service industries are pivotal to the Irish economy, while mining, manufacturing, and construction also remain important. Ireland is a republic with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the president, and the head of government is the prime minister. Human settlement in Ireland began c. 6000 bc, and Celtic migration dates from c. 300 bc. St. Patrick is credited with having Christianized the country in the 5th century. Norse domination began in 795 and ended in 1014, when the Norse were defeated by Brian Boru. Gaelic Ireland’s independence ended in 1175 when Roderic O’Connor, Ireland’s high king, accepted English King Henry II as his over- lord. Beginning in the 16th century, Irish Catholic landowners fled reli¬ gious persecution by the English and were replaced by English and Scottish Protestant migrants. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established in 1801. The Irish Potato Famine of the 1840s led as many as 1.5 million people to emigrate, and the British government’s grudging and ineffective relief measures built momentum for Irish Home Rule. The Easter Rising (1916) was followed by virtual civil war (1919-21), during which the Irish Republican Army used guerrilla tactics to force the British gov¬ ernment to negotiate. The Catholic majority in southern Ireland favoured complete independence, and the Protestant majority in the north preferred continued union with Britain. Southern Ireland was granted dominion sta¬ tus and became the Irish Free State in 1921, and in 1937 it adopted the name Eire (Ireland) and became a sovereign independent country. It remained neutral during World War II. Britain recognized the status of Ireland in 1949 but declared that cession of the northern six counties (Northern Ire¬ land) could not occur without the consent of the Parliament of Northern Ireland. In 1973 Ireland joined the European Economic Community (later the European Community); it is now a member of the European Union. The last decades of the 20th century were dominated by sectarian hostilities between the island’s Catholics and Protestants over the status of Northern Ireland. The Irish government played a pivotal role in negotiating and win¬ ning public support for the Belfast Agreement (1998), which gave the country a consultative role in the affairs of Northern Ireland and modified Ireland’s constitution to remove its claim to the territory of the entire island.