John \'yan\, Friedrich Ludwig (b. Aug. 11, 1778, Lanz, Branden¬ burg, Prussia—d. Oct. 15, 1852, Freyburg an der Unstrut, Prussian Sax¬ ony) German educator who founded the Tumverein (gymnastic club) movement in Germany. As a teacher in Berlin from 1809, he began a pro¬ gram of outdoor exercise for students. He invented the parallel bars, rings, balance beam, horse, and horizontal bar, all of which have become stan¬ dard equipment for gymnastics. In 1819 he came under suspicion for his fervent nationalism and strong influence on youth. He was arrested and imprisoned for almost a year; his gymnastic club closed, and a national ban was placed on gymnastics (lifted in 1842). He was awarded the Iron Cross for military bravery (1840) and served in the national parliament
(1848-49).
jahrzeit See yahrzeit
jai alai VhI-,11, .hl-o-'ll \ Basque "merry festival" Court game resem¬ bling handball. Of Basque origin, it developed from pelota and was given its present name when it was imported to Cuba in 1900. It is played between two or four players with a ball and a hurling device consisting of a long, curved wicker basket strapped to the wrist. The use of this hurl¬ ing device, called a cesta, allows the ball to reach speeds up to 240 km/hr (150 mph). The court, 53.3 m (58.3 yards) long, is three-walled. The object of the game is to bounce the ball off the front wall with such speed and spin that the opponent is unable to return it. Pari-mutuel betting on jai alai is permitted in the U.S.
Jaina vrata \'jl-n3-'vr3-t9\ In Jainism, any of the vows taken by monks, nuns, and lay members. The first five are the mahavratas, or “great vows”: nonviolence, truthfulness, not stealing, sexual purity, and renunciation of possessions. These are interpreted more moderately for lay members than for monks; for example, lay members need only remain sexually faithful to their spouses, while monks must practice celibacy. The remaining vows are designed to help in keeping the first five. The final vow is the prom¬ ise to die in meditation during self-starvation when observance of the other vows is no longer possible.
Jainism Vjl-.ni-zomV Religion of India established in the 6th century bce. It was founded by Vardhamana, who was called Mahavira, as a reaction against the Vedic religion, which required animal sacrifices. Jainism’s core belief is AHIMSA, or noninjury to all living things. Jainism has no belief in a creator god, though there are a number of lesser deities for various aspects of life. Jains believe their religion is eternal and hold that it was revealed in stages by a number of Conquerors, of whom Mahavira was the 24th. Living as an ascetic, Mahavira preached the need for rigorous penance and self-denial as the means of perfecting human nature, escap¬ ing the cycle of rebirth, and attaining moksha, or liberation. Jains view karma as an invisible material substance that interferes with liberation and can be dissolved only through asceticism. By the end of the 1st century ce the Jains had split into two sects, each of which later developed its own canon of sacred writings: the Digambaras, who held that an adherent should own nothing, not even clothes, and that women must be reborn as men before they can attain moksha; and the more moderate Svetambaras, who retained a few possessions such as a robe, an alms bowl, a whisk
broom, and a mukhavastrika (a piece of cloth held over the mouth to pro¬ tect against the ingestion and killing of small insects). In keeping with their principle of reverence for life, Jains are known for their charitable works, including building shelters for animals. Jainism preaches univer¬ sal tolerance and does not seek to make converts. In the early 21st cen¬ tury Jainism had some 4.5 million followers.
Jaipur \'jl-,pur\ Capital (pop., 2001 prelim.: 2,324,319) of Rajasthan state, northwestern India. A walled town surrounded by hills (except to the south), it was founded in 1727 by Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh to replace Amber as the capital of the princely state of Jaipur. The city, known for its beauty, is unique in its straight-line planning; its buildings are mostly rose-coloured, and it is sometimes called the “pink city.” It is a popular tourist destination; historic structures include the city palace, the Hall of Winds, Ram Bagh palace, and Nahargarh, or Tiger Fort.
Jakarta \p-kar-te\ formerly (1949-72) Djakarta Capital (pop., 1999 est.: 9,604,900) and largest city of Indonesia. Located on the northwest¬ ern coast of Java, it was founded in 1527 after the sultan of Bantam defeated the Portuguese on the site. The Dutch took control in 1619, renaming it Batavia and establishing it as the headquarters of the Dutch East India Company. In 1949 the city was renamed and made Indonesia’s capital. It grew rapidly, soon becoming one of the world’s most populous cities. A major trade, industrial, and financial centre, it is also the seat of several universities.
Jakobson Vya-kob-sonN, Roman (Osipovich) (b. Oct. 11, 1896, Moscow, Russia—d. July 18, 1982, Boston, Mass., U.S.) Russian-born U.S. linguist. Born and educated in Moscow, Jakobson moved to Prague in 1920; the European political situation forced him to flee to Scandina¬ via in 1938 and to the U.S. in 1941. He taught at Harvard University (1949-67). His interests ranged from folk epics and the cultural history of the Slavs to general phonology, the morphology of the Slavic languages, and speech acquisition. His preoccupation with contrast and opposition is reflected in his analysis of the Russian case system (1938), a brilliant analysis of the Russian verbal system (1948), and preeminently in his work on distinctive features in phonology.
Jalal al-DIn al-Rum? See ROmT
Jalapa \ha-'la-pa\ in full Jalapa Enriquez City (pop., 2000: 373,076), capital of Veracruz state, east-central Mexico. It is located in the Sierra Madre Oriental about 4,700 ft (1,430 m) above sea level. A mar¬ ket city for locally grown coffee and tobacco, it was famous in colonial days for its annual fair, held to dispose of the goods brought from Cadiz, Spain, by the returning Spanish silver fleet. The massive Spanish-Moorish architecture of the city is reminiscent of viceregal days.
Jalisco \ha-'les-ko\ State (pop., 2000: 6,322,002), west-central Mexico. It covers 31,211 sq mi (80,836 sq km), and its capital is Guadalajara. The Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range traverses the state, separating the Pacific coast from a high plateau region. The Sierra Madre region is largely volcanic, and earthquakes are frequent. The state’s many lakes include Chapala, Mexico’s largest. First invaded by Spaniards in 1526, Jalisco was incorporated into Nueva Galicia. In 1889 its area was much reduced by the separation of the territory of Tepic (now Nayarit state) from its coastal zone. Its economy is based on agriculture, livestock raising, forest products, and mining.
jam See jelly and jam
Jamaica Island country, West Indies, located south of Cuba. The third largest island in the Caribbean, it is 146 mi (235 km) long and 35 mi (56 km) wide. Area: 4,244 sq mi (10,991 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 2,736,000. Capitaclass="underline" Kingston. The population consists mostly of descen- dents of African slaves. Languages: English (official), Jamaican Creole. Religions: Christianity (mainly Protestant; also Roman Catholic); also Ras- TAFARlANism. Currency: Jamaica dollar. Jamaica has three major regions: the coastal lowlands, which encircle the island and are heavily cultivated; a limestone plateau, which covers half of the island; and the interior high¬ lands, with forested mountain ranges, including the Blue Mountains. Agri¬ culture employs about one-fifth of the workforce, and the major agricultural export is raw sugar, with molasses and rum as by-products. Industry focuses on the production of bauxite and alumina and on the gar¬ ment industry. Tourism is very important. Jamaica is a constitutional mon¬ archy with two legislative houses. Its chief of state is the British monarch, represented by the governor-general, and its head of government is the prime minister. The island was settled by Arawak Indians c. ad 600. It was