Jansenism Roman Catholic reform movement inspired by the writings of Cornelius Jansen. Influenced by the works of St. Augustine and espe¬ cially by Augustine’s attacks on Pelagianism and the doctrine of free will, Jansen adopted Augustine’s doctrines of predestination and the necessity of God’s grace, a stance considered uncomfortably close to Calvinism by Roman Catholic authorities, who banned his book the Augustinus in 1642. After Jansen’s death in 1638, his followers made their base at the abbey in Port-Royal, France. Blaise Pascal, the most famous Jansenist, defended their teachings in his Provincial Letters (1656-57). In 1709 Louis XIV ordered the Port Royal abbey demolished. Followers of Jansen started a Jansenist church in 1723, which endured into the late 20th century.
Jansky, Karl (Guthe) (b. Oct. 22,1905, Norman, Okla., U.S.—d. Feb. 14,1950, Red Bank, N.J.) U.S. engineer. He graduated from the University of Wisconsin and went to work for Bell Telephone Laboratories. Assigned to track down sources of static that could interfere with radiotelephone communication, he discovered (1931) the first extraterrestrial source of radio waves, emanating from the constellation Sagittarius in the direction of the Milky Way Galaxy’s centre. The discovery proved that celestial bod¬ ies could emit radio waves and marked the beginning of radio astronomy.
Janus \'ja-nos\ Roman god of doorways and archways, after whom the month of January is named. Often depicted as a double-faced head, he was a deity of beginnings. The worship of Janus dated back to the ear¬ liest years of Rome, and the city had many freestanding ceremonial gate-
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Japan ► Jarrell I 979
ways called jani, used for symbolically auspicious entrances or exits. The most famous was the Janus Geminus, whose double doors were left open in time of war and closed when Rome was at peace. The festival of Janus, the Agonium, took place on January 9.
Japan Island country, East Asia, western Pacific Ocean. Its four main islands are Hokkaido, Honshu,
Shikoku, and Kyushu. It is separated from the Asian mainland by the Sea of Japan (East Sea). Area: 145,903 sq mi (377,887 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 128,085,000. Capitaclass="underline"
Tokyo. The Japanese overwhelm¬ ingly are a single Asian ethnic group. Language: Japanese (official). Reli¬ gions: Shinto, Buddhism; also Christianity. Currency: yen. Situated in one of Earth’s most geologically active zones, Japan experiences volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. Mountain ranges cover some four-fifths of its land surface; its highest mountain is Mount Fuji. The economy, one of the world’s biggest, is based largely on manufacturing and services; exports include electronic and electrical equipment, motor vehicles, chemicals, and iron and steel products. The government’s involvement in banking results in unique cooperation between the public and private sectors. Japan is one of the world’s principal seagoing nations, with an important marine fishing sector. It is a constitutional monarchy with two legislative houses; its symbol of state is the emperor, and the head of government is the prime minister. Human habitation in Japan is thought to date to at least 30,000 years ago. The Yamato court established the first unified Japanese state in the 4th-5th century ad; during that period, Buddhism arrived in Japan by way of Korea. For centuries Japan borrowed heavily from Chinese culture, but it began to sever its links with the mainland by the 9th cen¬ tury. The Fujiwara family were dominant through the 11th century. In 1192 Minamoto Yoritomo established Japan’s first bakufu, or shogunate (see Kamakura period). The Muromachi period (1338-1573) was marked by war¬ fare among powerful families. Unification was achieved in the late 16th and early 17th centuries under the leadership of Oda Nobunaga, Toyo- tomi Hideyoshi, and Tokugawa Ieyasu. During the Edo (Tokugawa) period (1603-1867), the government imposed a policy of isolation. Under the leadership of the emperor Meiji (1867-1912), it adopted a constitution (1889) and began a program of modernization and Westernization. Japa¬ nese imperialism led to war with China (1894-95) and Russia (1904-05) as well as to the annexation of Korea (1910) and Manchuria (1931). Dur¬ ing World War II Japan attacked U.S. forces in Hawaii and the Philip¬ pines (December 1941) and occupied European colonial possessions in Southeast Asia. In 1945 the U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and Japan surrendered to the Allies. A new democratic consti¬ tution was drafted (1947) during the U.S. postwar occupation. Japan also began rebuilding its ruined industrial base using new technology. A tre¬ mendous economic recovery followed, and Japan became one of the world’s wealthiest countries. It was able to maintain a favourable balance of trade despite a long-term economic recession. See map on following page.
Japan, Sea of or East Sea Branch of the western Pacific Ocean, bounded by Japan, by Sakhalin Island, and by Russia and Korea on the Asian mainland. It has a surface area of about 377,600 sq mi (978,000 sq km), a mean depth of 5,748 ft (1,752 m), and a maximum depth of 12,276 ft (3,742 m). Its relatively warm waters contribute greatly to the mild climate of Japan. The growing trade among East Asian countries has increased its use as a commercial waterway.
Japanese beetle Scarab beetle (Popillia japonica) that is a major pest of plants. Introduced accidentally from Japan into the U.S. in 1916, Japa¬ nese beetles are known to feed on more than 200 species of plant. Their larvae feed underground on roots; adults feed on flowers, fruit, and foli¬ age. They range from Maine to South Carolina, and infestations have occurred in other parts of North America. The adult, about 0.4 in. (10 mm) long, is bright metallic green with coppery-brown wing covers. Con¬ trol efforts include the use of poisonous sprays and a disease-inducing bacterium and introduction of the beetle’s natural enemies (certain para¬ sitic wasp and fly species).
Japanese crab See king crab
Japanese language Language spoken by about 125 million people on the islands of Japan, including the Ryukyus. The only other language of the Japanese archipelago is Ainu (see Ainu), now spoken by only a handful of people on Hokkaido, though once much more widespread. Japanese is not closely related to any other language, though a distant genetic kinship to Korean is now thought probable by some scholars, and an even more remote relationship to the Altaic languages is possible. Japanese is first attested in the 8th century ad, when Middle Chinese char¬ acters were utilized solely for their phonetic value to write native Japa¬ nese words. Japanese retains a huge stock of loanwords from Middle Chinese, long adapted to native phonetics.
Japanese law Law as it has developed in Japan as a consequence of the combination of two cultural and legal traditions, one indigenous Japa¬ nese, the other Western. In the 8th century Japan borrowed and adapted the legal system of the Chinese Tang dynasty. With the rise of the warrior class, clan codes governing the behaviour and actions of warrior families were developed. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), Japan began to bor¬ row heavily from European legal systems, particularly the German Civil Code. After World War II, largely as a result of the country’s occupation by the U.S. military and later contacts with U.S. legal scholars, Japan incorporated aspects of the U.S. legal system, including various civil pro¬ cedures and elements of labour and business law. Traditional extralegal dispute-resolution methods remain strong, and litigation plays a less per¬ vasive role than in the U.S.