Jocho \'j6-,cho\ (d. 1057, Japan) Japanese Buddhist sculptor. The son and pupil of a sculptor, he worked primarily for the Fujiwara family. He was awarded unprecedented honours for sculptures executed for Kyoto’s Hojo Temple and for the Fujiwara family temple in Nara. He was instru¬ mental in improving the social standing of Buddhist sculptors by orga¬ nizing a guild, and he perfected the so-called kiyoseho, or joined-wood technique. His only extant work is a carved Amida (Buddha) figure (c. 1053) in the Byodo Temple at Uji.
Joel Second of the 12 Minor Prophets in the Hebrew scriptures, author of the book of Joel. (His prophecy is part of a larger book, The Twelve, in the Jewish canon.) He lived sometime during the period of the Second Temple of Jerusalem (516 bc-ad 70), but nothing is known of his life. He opens his prophecy by describing a plague of locusts, an allegory of the disasters to come upon a faithless people. His message is simple: salva¬ tion will come to Judah only when the people truly turn to Yahweh. The end of the book looks forward to the final days, when all Israel will share in the knowledge of God.
Joffre VzhofrA, Joseph (-Jacques-Cesaire) (b. Jan. 12, 1852, Rivesaltes, France—d. Jan. 3, 1931, Paris) French commander in chief on the Western Front in World War I. He was responsible for the calamitous
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990 I Joffrey ► John III Ducas Vatatzes
campaign with which the French army began operations in 1914 against Germany, but he shifted his forces and created a new French army under his direct command that won a great victory in the First Battle of the Marne (1914). As commander in chief (1915-16), he ordered the French armies to burst through the German positions, at ruinous cost.
His prestige waned, and, because of the lack of French preparation for the Battle of Verdun (1916), he was stripped of his direct command and resigned. He was created a marshal of France in 1916.
Joffrey, Robert orig. Abdullah Jaffa Bey Khan (b. Dec. 24,
1930, Seattle, Wash., U.S.—d.
March 25, 1988, New York, N.Y.)
U.S. dancer and choreographer, founder-director of the Joffrey Bal¬ let. He was the son of an Afghan father and an Italian-born mother. He studied dance in Seattle and later in New York, opened a ballet school in 1953, and in 1954 formed the first of several groups. In 1956 he founded the Robert Joffrey (later simply Joffrey) Ballet with Gerald Arpino (b. 1928). The company gained inter¬ national fame and toured widely. In 1965 it became affiliated with the New York City Center. Joffrey’s ballets include Persephone (1952), Astarte (1967), Remembrances (1973), and Postcards (1980). After Jof¬ frey’s death, Arpino became director; in 1995 he moved the company to Chicago, renaming it the Joffrey Ballet of Chicago.
Jogan \'j6-,gan\ style Japanese sculptural style of the early Heian period, seen primarily but not exclusively in Buddhist sculptures. The massive figures, carved from single blocks of wood, are columnar, erect, and sym¬ metrical and have large round faces, large lips, wide noses, and wide eyes, almost geometrically simplified. The drapery, composed of alternating series of small and large waves, is its most distinguishing feature. The technique was first seen on the drapery of the colossal image of the Bud¬ dha at Barman, Afg.; Chinese and Japanese pilgrims brought back holy images and used them as prototypes for their own sacred images.
jogging Aerobic exercise involving running at an easy pace. Jogging (1967) by Bill Bowerman and W.E. Harris boosted jogging’s popularity for fitness, weight loss, and stress relief. Many medical authorities endorse jogging, but others warn of risks to feet, shins, knees, and backs. Jogging only every other day, warming up properly, and using well-designed shoes and proper technique can reduce risks.
Johanan ben Zakkai yjo-'ha-non-ben-'za-ka-.lV (fl. 1st century ad) Palestinian Jewish sage. A leading representative of the Pharisees, he helped preserve and develop Judaism in the years after the destruction of the Second Temple of Jerusalem (ad 70). He is said to have been smuggled out of the besieged city in a coffin and to have visited the Roman camp and persuaded the future emperor Vespasian to allow him to set up an academy at Jamnia near the Judaean coast. He established an authorita¬ tive rabbinic body there and was revered as a great teacher and scholar.
Johannesburg City (pop., 2001: metro, area, 3,225,810), northeastern South Africa. The capital of Gauteng province and one of the country’s largest cities, it bestrides a highland region called the Witwatersrand. It was founded in 1886 after the discovery of gold nearby and was occu¬ pied by the British during the South African War in 1900. It was a legally segregated city until 1991; non whites were restricted to living in outly¬ ing areas called townships, including Soweto. Greater Johannesburg extends more than 600 sq mi (1,600 sq km) and includes more than 500 suburbs and townships. It is a leading industrial and financial centre. Its cultural and educational institutions include the Johannesburg Art Gal¬ lery, the Civic Theatre, the University of the Witwatersrand, and the Uni¬ versity of Johannesburg.
Johannsen, Wilhelm Ludvig (b. Feb. 3, 1857, Copenhagen, Den.—d. Nov. 11, 1927, Copenhagen) Danish botanist and geneticist. He supported Hugo de Vries’s discovery that variation in genotype can occur by mutation; the new character, while independent of natural selection in
its initial occurrence, is then subject to natural selection. Johannsen’s Ele¬ ments of Heredity (1909) became an influential text, and his terms phe¬ notype and genotype are now a part of the language of genetics.
Johansson, (Per) Christian (b. May 20, 1817, Stockholm, Swed.—d. 1903, St. Petersburg, Russia) Swedish-born ballet dancer and teacher. Johansson trained under August Bournonville. He was engaged at the Imperial Russian Ballet in 1841. In his prime his innate nobility and grace were unsurpassed. In 1860 he turned his attention to teaching at the Imperial Ballet School. Over the next four decades he brought a new pol¬ ish to the Russian style, providing it with a firm base in the French method that he had learned from Bournonville.
John known as John Lackland (b. Dec. 24, 1167, Oxford, Eng.—d. Oct. 18/19, 1216, Newark, Nottinghamshire) King of England (1199— 1216). The youngest son of Henry II, he joined his brother Richard (later Richard I) in a rebellion against Henry (1189). John became lord of Ire¬ land, and, when Richard was imprisoned in Germany on his way back from the Third Crusade, he tried to seize control of England (1193). On Richard’s return, John was banished (1194), but the two were later rec¬ onciled. Crowned king in 1199, John lost Normandy (1204) and most of his other French lands in a war with Philip II (Philip Augustus). After Inno¬ cent III excommunicated him for refusing to recognize Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury, John was obliged to declare England a fief of the Holy See (1213). He launched a military campaign against France in 1214 but made no lasting gains. His heavy taxes and aggressive assertion of feudal privileges led to the outbreak of civil war (1215). The barons forced him to sign the Magna Carta, but the civil war continued until his death.
John or John de Balliol (b. c. 1250—d. April 1313, Chateau Gal- liard, Normandy, Fr.) King of Scotland (1292-96). He was one of 13 claimants to the throne but won by primogeniture. John paid homage to Edward 1 of England but soon refused his request for military aid in Gas¬ cony and instead signed a treaty with the French. When Edward invaded Gascony in 1296, the Scots raided northern England. Within months Edward* s army had captured strategic castles in Scotland, and John was forced to resign his kingdom to Edward. He was held in the Tower of London until 1299.