Arbus, Diane orig. Diane Nemerov (b. March 14, 1923, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. July 26, 1971, New York City) U.S. photographer. The sister of the poet and critic Howard Nemerov, she worked as a fash¬ ion photographer in the 1950s. From about 1955 to 1957 she studied with documentary photographer Lisette Model. She published her first photo¬ essay, for Esquire, in 1960. In the 1960s she began to explore the sub¬ jects that would occupy her for much of her career: individuals living on the outskirts of society and “normalcy,” such as nudists, transvestites, dwarfs, and the mentally or physically handicapped. Her own evident intimacy with the subjects of her photos resulted in images that engage the sympathy and collusion of the viewer and elicit a strong response. During this period she mastered her technique of using a square format and flash lighting, which gives her work a sense of theatricality and sur¬ realism. In 1971 Arbus committed suicide.
Arbuthnot Var-'both-notV John (b. April 1667, Inverbervie, Scot.—d. Feb. 27, 1735, London, Eng.) Scot¬ tish mathematician, physician, and satirist. His satirical writings include a political allegory, The History of John Bull (1712), that established John Bull as a personification of England. He was a founding member of the famous Scriblerus Club, which aimed to ridicule bad literature and false learning. He was also chief contributor to and guiding spirit of the Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus (written 1713-14), a mocking expo¬ sure of pedantry that was written by club members.
arbutus \ar-'byu-t3s\ Any of about 14 species (genus Arbutus) of broad¬ leaved evergreen shrubs or trees, in the heath family. Native to southern Europe and western North America, they are characterized by loosely clustered white or pink flowers and red or orange berries. A. menziesii (variously known as the madrona, Pacific madrona, laurelwood, and Oregon laurel) and A. unedo (the strawberry tree) are cultivated as orna¬ mentals. The trailing arbutus belongs to the genus Epigaea.
Arc de Triomphe \ , ark-do-tri- , o n f\ Largest triumphal arch in the world. A masterpiece of Romantic Classicism, it is one of the best-known monu¬ ments of Paris. It stands at the centre of the Place Charles de Gaulle, at the western terminus of the Champs-Elysees. Initiated by Napoleon, designed by Jean-Francois-Therese Chalgrin, and constructed in 1806-36, the monument is 164 ft (50 m) high and 148 ft (45 m) wide. Decorative relief sculptures celebrating Napoleon’s victorious military campaigns were executed on the arch by Francois Rude, Jean-Pierre Cortot, and An¬ toine Etex.
arc furnace Type of electric furnace in which heat is generated by an arc between carbon electrodes above the surface of the material (com¬ monly a metal) being heated. William Siemens first demonstrated the arc furnace in 1879 at the Paris Exposition by melting iron in crucibles; hori¬ zontally placed carbon electrodes produced an electric arc above the con¬ tainer of metal. The first commercial arc furnace in the U.S. (1906) had a capacity of four tons (3.6 metric tons) and was equipped with two elec¬ trodes. Modern furnaces range in heat size from a few tons up to 400 tons (360 metric tons), and the arcs strike directly into the metal bath from vertically positioned, graphite electrodes to remelt scrap steel or refine briquettes of direct-reduced iron ore.
arcade Series of arches, supported by columns or piers, joined together end to end in a row. When supporting a roof, an arcade may function as a passageway adjacent to a solid wall, a covered walkway that provides access to adjacent shops, or a transitional element surrounding an open internal court. See also colonnade.
Arcadia Ancient country, central Peloponnese, Greece. Mountainous and landlocked, it was not overrun by the Dorians during their occupation of Greece (1100-1000 bc). Its isolation and its pastoral character partly explain why it was represented as a paradise in Greek and Roman bucolic poetry. It was the scene of conflict during the War of Greek Independence (1821-29). The modem Greek department of Arkadhfa is nearly coex¬ tensive with the ancient country.
Arcadian League Confederation of ancient Greek city-states of Arca¬ dia. Arcadian towns had been forced to ally with Sparta by 550 bc, and most Arcadians remained faithful to Sparta during the Peloponnesian War (431^-04 bc). In an effort to contain Sparta, Epaminondas of Thebes founded the city-state of Megalopolis in 371-368 bc as the seat of the Arcadian League. The League united the Arcadians for a few decades until internal discord crippled their confederation.
Arcaro, Eddie orig. George Edward Arcaro (b. Feb. 19, 1916, Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S.—d. Nov. 14, 1997, Miami, Fla.) U.S. jockey. He became the first jockey to ride five Kentucky Derby winners (1938, 1941, 1945, 1948,1952) and the first to ride two Triple Crown champions (Whirl-
Arbuthnot, detail of an oil painting by W. Robinson; in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery, Edinburgh.
COURTESY OF THE SCOTTISH NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, EDINBURGH
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
arch ► archer fish I 97
away, 1941; Citation, 1948). In 31 years of riding Thoroughbreds (1931— 61), he won 549 stakes events, a total of 4,779 races, and more than $30 million in purses.
arch Curved structure that spans the opening between two piers or col¬ umns and supports loads from above. The masonry arch provides the stepping stone from the post-and-beam system to the evolution of the vault, and was first widely used by the Romans. Its construction depends on a series of wedge-shaped blocks (voussoirs) set side by side in a semicir¬ cular curve or along two intersecting arcs (as in a pointed arch). The cen¬ tral voussoir is called the keystone, and the two points where the arch rests on its supports are known as the spring points. An arch can carry a much greater load than a horizontal beam of the same size and material, because downward pressure forces the voussoirs together instead of apart. The resulting outward thrust must be resisted by the arch’s supports. Present-day lightweight monolithic (one-piece) arches of steel, concrete, or laminated wood are highly rigid, and thereby minimize horizontal thrust. See illustration opposite.
archaebacteria \,ar-ke-,bak-'tir-e-3\ Group of bacteria whose mem¬ bers differ from the eubacteria in certain physical, physiological, and genetic features (e.g., cell-wall components). Archaebacteria are aquatic or terrestrial microorganisms that exhibit a diversity of shapes, including spherical, rod-shaped, and spiral forms. They survive in various extreme environments, including very hot or salty ones. Some require oxygen; some do not. Some produce methane as an end product; others depend on sulfur for their metabolism.
archaeology Scientific study of material remains of past human life and activities. These include human artifacts from the very earliest stone tools to the man-made objects that are buried or thrown away in the present day. Archaeological investigations are a principal source of mod¬ ern knowledge of prehistoric, ancient, and extinct cultures. The field emerged as an academic discipline in the late 19th century, following centuries of haphazard antiquarian collecting. Among the archaeologist’s principal activities are the location, surveying, and mapping of sites and the excavation, classification, dating, and interpretation of materials to place them in historical context. Major subfields include classical archae¬ ology, the study of ancient Mediterranean and Middle Eastern civiliza¬ tions; prehistoric archaeology, or general archaeology; and historical archaeology, the study of historic-period remains to augment the written record. See also anthropology; coin collecting; stone-tool industry.