judiciary Branch of government in which judicial power is vested. The principal work of any judiciary is the adjudication of disputes or contro¬ versies. Regulations govern what parties are allowed before a judicial assembly, or court, what evidence will be admitted, what trial procedure will be followed, and what types of judgments may be rendered. Typically present in court are the presiding judge, the parties to the matter (sometimes called litigants), the lawyers representing the parties, and other individuals including witnesses, clerks, bailiffs, and jurors when the proceeding involves a jury. Though the courts’ stated function is to administer justice according to rules enacted by the legislative branch, courts also unavoid¬ ably make law. In deciding, for example, how legislative provisions are to be applied to specific cases, the courts in effect make law by laying down rules for future cases; this is known as the doctrine of precedent. In some jurisdictions, courts have the power of judicial review, enabling them to declare unconstitutional legislation or acts of the executive.
Judith Legendary Jewish heroine, the central character in the Book of Judith in the Apocrypha. (The book is excluded from the Hebrew Bible.) A beautiful Jewish widow whose city is besieged by the Assyrians under their general, Holofemes, Judith leaves the city in pretended flight and foretells victory to Holofernes. Invited into his tent, she cuts off his head as he lies in a drunken sleep, and the Jews defeat the leaderless Assyri¬ ans. Probably fictional, the story may have been written in the 2nd cen¬ tury bc, after the end of the Maccabean revolt.
judo Martial art that emphasizes the use of quick movement and lever¬ age to throw an opponent. Its techniques are generally intended to turn an opponent’s force to one’s own advantage rather than to oppose it directly. The opponent must be thrown cleanly, pinned, or mastered
through the application of pressure to arm joints or the neck. Judo is now practiced primarily as sport. It became an Olympic sport in 1964; wom¬ en’s judo was added in 1992. The sport evolved out of jujitsu in late-19th- century Japan.
juge d'instruction \'zhmzh-da n -strLek-syo n \ French "judge of in¬ quiry" In France, a magistrate responsible for conducting the investi¬ gative hearing that precedes a criminal trial. In this hearing the major evidence is presented, witnesses are heard, and depositions are taken. If at the end of the hearing the magistrate is not convinced that the evidence of guilt is sufficient to warrant a trial, no trial occurs. This process differs from the grand jury hearing in the Anglo-American system.
Jugendstil Vyti-gont-.shtelX Artistic style that arose near the end of the 19th century in Germany and Austria. Its name was derived from the Munich magazine Die Jugend (“Youth”), founded in 1896, which featured Art Nouveau designs. Its early phase, primarily floral in character, was rooted in English Art Nouveau and Japanese prints; a more abstract phase emerged after 1900. Primarily a style in architecture and the decorative arts, it also included the great Austrian painter Gustav Klimt.
juggler Entertainer who keeps several plates, knives, balls, or other objects in the air at once by tossing and catching them. The art of jug¬ gling has been practiced since antiquity. Through the 18th century jug¬ glers performed at fairs and marketplaces, and in the 19th century they found larger audiences in ciRCUSes and music halls. In these training grounds the art advanced in technical perfection, producing outstanding perform¬ ers such as Enrico Rastelli, who could juggle 10 balls. Modern jugglers introduced variations such as performing while blindfolded on horseback, on a high wire, or on a unicycle.
Jugurtha \ju-'g9r-th3\ (b. c. 160 bc —d. 104, Rome) Ruler of the North African kingdom of Numidia under the Romans (118-105 bc). After the death of his uncle Micipsa, then ruler of Numidia, Jugurtha shared rule with his two cousins. He had one killed and captured the capital city of the other. Rome intervened with troops, which Jugurtha successfully out¬ witted until he was captured in 105 bc. See also Gaius Marius; Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix.
Juilliard \'ju-le-,ard\ School Internationally renowned school of the performing arts in New York, New York, U.S. It has its roots in the Insti¬ tute of Musical Art (founded 1905) and a graduate school (1924) founded through an endowment from the financier Augustus D. Juilliard (1840- 1919). It is now the professional educational arm of the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts. It offers bachelor’s degrees in music, dance, and drama and postgraduate degrees in music. The Juilliard String Quartet (founded 1946) was important to the development of chamber music in the U.S.
jujitsu \ju-'jit-sii\ Martial art that employs holds, throws, and paralyz¬ ing blows to subdue or disable an opponent. It evolved among the samu¬ rai warrior class in Japan from about the 17th century. A ruthless form of fighting, its techniques included the use of hard or tough parts of the body (e.g., knuckles, fists, elbows, and knees) against an enemy’s vulnerable points. Jujitsu declined in the mid-19th century, but many of its concepts and methods were incorporated into judo, karate, and aikido.
Julia (b. 39 bc —d. ad 14, Rhegium) Only child of Augustus. She wed Marcellus, who died in 23 bc, then Agrippa (21), Augustus’s chief lieuten¬ ant. Their two eldest sons were adopted by Augustus (17) and became his heirs. When Agrippa died (12 bc), Augustus’s second wife persuaded him to favour her sons (his stepsons), Tiberius and Drusus, as heirs. Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce his wife and marry Julia (11 bc). The unhappy Julia became promiscuous, and Tiberius went into self-imposed exile. When Augustus discovered Julia’s behaviour, he banished her to an island off Campania (2 bc), then to Rhegium. On becoming emperor, Tiberius withheld her allowance, and she starved to death.
Julian or Julian the Apostate Latin Julianus Apostata orig. Flavius Claudius Julianus (b. ad 331/332, Constantinople—d. June 26/27, 363, Ctesiphon, Mesopotamia) Roman emperor (361-363), noted scholar and military leader. The nephew of Constantine I, he was raised a Christian but converted to mystical paganism. As caesar (subemperor) in the west, he restored the Rhine frontier and was proclaimed Augustus (senior emperor) by his armies. Though Constantius II initially objected to Julian as his successor, he accepted him on his deathbed (361). As emperor Julian proclaimed freedom of worship for pagans and Christians in 361; he nevertheless promoted paganism over Christianity, against
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1004 I Julian ► June beetle
which he committed acts of violence and persecution. He introduced aus¬ terity to government, reducing impe¬ rial staff and overhauling imperial finances. To reassert Roman power in the east he attacked Persia; the effort failed, and he was killed in a retreat near Baghdad.
Julian, George Washing¬ ton) (b. May 5, 1817, Wayne county, Ind., U.S.—d. July 7, 1899,
Irvington, Ind.) U.S. politician. He was admitted to the bar in 1840 and practiced law in several Indiana towns. By the mid-1840s he was a Whig member of the Indiana state legislature and a frequent author of antislavery newspaper articles.
Elected to the U.S. House of Repre¬ sentatives as a member of the Free Soil Party in 1848, he was that par¬ ty’s vice-presidential candidate in 1852. In 1856 he helped form the Republican Party. Again serving in the House (1861-71), he played an important role in making emancipation a Northern war aim in the American Civil War. In 1867 he helped prepare articles of impeachment against Pres. Andrew Johnson. He later wrote books and articles on reform causes, including women’s suffrage.
Julian Alps Range of the eastern Alps. It extends southeast from the Car- nic Alps in northeastern Italy to the city of Ljubljana, Slvn. The highest peak is Triglav (9,396 ft [2,864 m]), also the highest point in Slovenia.