Justin Martyr, Saint (b. c. 100, Flavia Neapolis, Palestine—d. c. 165, Rome; feast day June 1) Early Christian Apologist and theologian. A pagan bom in Palestine, he studied philosophy before becoming a Chris¬ tian in 132, probably at Ephesus. He then spent years as an itinerant preacher and teacher. One of the earliest Christian Apologists, he was the
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Justinian I ► juvenile court I 1007
first to blend Greek philosophy and Christian doctrine. He wrote two Apologies addressed to Roman emperors, which asserted that Christian faith can be in harmony with human reason and that Christianity is a purer form of the truth glimpsed in pagan philosophy. In his Dialogue with Try- pho he tried to prove the truth of Christianity to a scholarly Jew named Trypho. While living in Rome, he was denounced as subversive and con¬ demned to death.
Justinian I orig. Petrus Sabbatius (b. 483, Tauresium, Dardania—d. Nov. 14, 565, Con¬ stantinople) Byzantine emperor (527-565). Determined to regain former Roman provinces lost to bar¬ barian invaders, Justinian conquered the Vandals in northern Africa in 534 and enjoyed an initial victory over the Ostrogoths in Italy in 540. War with the Goths, however, lasted another two decades and brought great devastation before Justinian gained control of the whole of Italy in 562 . He was unable to prevent Bulgars, Slavs, Huns, and Avars from carrying out raids along the empire’s northern frontier. He also carried on an intermittent war with Persia until 561. He reorganized the imperial government and commis¬ sioned the reform and codification of the great body of Roman law known as the Code of Justinian. His efforts to root out corruption triggered a revolt in Constantinople in 532 that nearly toppled his government; his wife, Theodora, helped him put down the revolt. Like all Roman emperors, Jus¬ tinian was an active builder, and his many public works projects included the reconstruction of cities and the construction of the church of Hagia Sophia, one of the finest and most famous buildings in the world.
Justinian, Code of Collections of laws and legal interpretations devel¬ oped under the sponsorship of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I from 529 to 565. Strictly speaking, they did not constitute a new legal code. Rather, Justinian’s committees of jurists provided basically two reference works that contained collections of past laws and extracts of the opinions of the great Roman jurists. Also included were an elementary outline of the law and a collection of Justinian’s new laws.
jute Either of two herbaceous annuals ( Corchorus capsularis and C. oli- torius, in the linden family), or their fibre. The plants grow 10-12 ft (3^4
m) high and have long, serrated, tapered, light green leaves and small yel¬ low flowers. Jute has been grown and processed in the Bengal area of India and Bangladesh since ancient times. Its biggest use is in burlap sacks and bags, which are used to ship and store many agricultural products. High-quality jute cloths are used as backing for tufted carpets and hooked rugs. Coarser jute fibres are made into twines, rough cordage, and door¬ mats.
Jutland Danish Jylland Vyue-JanV Peninsula, northern Europe. Form¬ ing the Danish mainland and the German state of Schleswig-Holstein, it is bounded to the west and north by the North Sea. Politically, its name applies only to the mainland of Denmark. It has an area of 11 ,496 sq mi (29,775 sq km) and is divided into several administrative regions. In World War I, the Battle of Jutland was fought off its coast.
Jutland, Battle of (May 31-June 1, 1916) Only major encounter between the British and German fleets in World War I, fought in the Skagerrak, an arm of the North Sea off the coast of Jutland (Denmark). The battle came to an indecisive end, and both sides claimed victory. Ger¬ many destroyed and crippled more ships and men, but Britain retained control of the North Sea. The tactics of the British admiral John R. Jelli- coe were criticized at the time, but his strategic victory left the German high-seas fleet ineffective for the rest of the war.
Juvenal Vjii-vs-naA orig. Decimus Junius Juvenalis (b. c. ad
55—d. 130) Roman poet. He is believed to have been born into a wealthy family, to have become an army officer, and to have grown embittered by his failure to receive a promotion. He is chiefly known for his 16 Satires, indignant attacks on human brutality and folly, particularly the corruption of Roman society under Domitian and his more humane successors Nerva, Trajan, and Hadrian. Juvenal’s verses are technically fine, vivid, and often ruthless, and they have been admired and imitated since the 5th century. Many of his phrases and epigrams (“bread and circuses,” “who will guard the guards themselves?” etc.) have entered common parlance.
juvenile court Special court handling problems of delinquent, neglected, or abused children. Two types of cases are processed by a juvenile court: civil matters, often concerning care of an abandoned or impoverished child, and criminal matters, arising from antisocial behav¬ iour by the child. Most statutes provide that all persons under a given age (often 18 years) must first be processed by the juvenile court, which can then, at its discretion, assign the case to an ordinary court. Before the cre¬ ation of the first juvenile court, in Chicago in 1899, and the subsequent creation of other such courts in the United States and other countries (e.g., Canada in 1908; England in 1908; France in 1912; Russia in 1918; Poland in 1919; Japan in 1922; and Germany in 1923), juveniles were tried in the same courts as adults.
Justinian I, detail of a mosaic, 6th cen¬ tury; in the Basilica of San Vitale, Ravenna
AUNARI-GIRAUDON FROM ART RESOURCE
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1008 I K2 ► kachina
K2 or Dapsang \,dap-'sang\ Mountain in the Karakoram Range. The world’s second highest peak, it reaches 28,251 ft (8,611 m); it lies partly in China and partly in the Pakistani-administered portion of the Kashmir region. It was discovered and measured in 1856 by Col. T.G. Montgom¬ erie and was given the symbol K2 because it was the second peak mea¬ sured in the Karakoram Range. In 1954 the Italians Achille Compagnoni and Lino Lacedelli became the first climbers to reach its summit.
Ka'bah Most sacred Muslim shrine, located near the centre of the Great Mosque in Mecca. All Muslims face toward it in their daily prayers. The cube-shaped structure, made of gray stone and marble, has its corners roughly oriented to the points of the compass; the interior contains only pillars and silver and gold lamps. Pilgrims to Mecca walk around the Ka'bah seven times and on its eastern side touch the Black Stone of Mecca, which may date from the pre-Islamic religion of the Arabs. Tradition holds that the Ka'bah was built by Abraham and Ishmael. In 630 Muhammad purged the place of its pagan idols and rededicated it to Islam.
Kabalega National Park \,ka-ba-Ta-ga\ National park, northwestern Uganda. Established in 1952, it occupies 1,483 sq mi (3,840 sq km) of rolling grass¬ land. Its central feature is the Kabalega Falls on the lower Victoria Nile River. The falls are about 20 ft (6 m) wide and drop 130 ft (40 m) in the first of three cascades.
Kabbala or Cabbala \ka-'ba-b\ Jewish mysticism as it developed in the 12th century and after. Essen¬ tially an oral tradition, it laid claim to secret wis¬ dom of the unwritten Torah communicated by God to Adam and Moses. It provided Jews with a direct approach to God, a notion regarded as heretical and pantheistic by Orthodox Judaism. A major text was the 12th-century Book of Brightness, which introduced the doctrine of transmigration of souls to Judaism and provided Kabbala with extensive mythical symbolism. In 13th-century Spain the tradition included the Book of the Image, which asserted that each cycle of history had its own Torah, and the Book of Splendour, which dealt with the mys¬ tery of creation. In the 16th century the centre of Kabbala was Safed, Galilee, where it was based on the esoteric teachings of the greatest of all Kabbalists, Isaac ben Solomon Luria. The doctrines of Lurianic Kab¬ bala, which called for Jews to achieve a cosmic restoration (Hebrew: tiqquri) through an intense mystical life and an unceasing struggle against evil, were influential in the development of modern Hasidism.