Labour Party British political party whose historic links with trade unions have led it to promote an active role for the state in the creation of economic prosperity and the provision of social services. In opposition to the Conservative Party, it has been Britain’s major democratic socialist party since the early 20th century. In 1900 the Trades Union Congress and the Independent Labour Party (founded 1893) established the Labour Representation Committee, which took the name Labour Party in 1906. In 1918 it became a socialist party with a democratic constitution, and by 1922 it had supplanted the Liberal Party as the official opposition party. In 1924 James Ramsay MacDonald formed the first Labour government, with Liberal support. The party was out of power from 1935 until a spectacu¬ lar recovery in 1945 brought in Clement R. Attlee’s government (until 1951), which introduced a system of social welfare, including a national health service, and extensive nationalization of industry. Labour regained power under Harold Wilson (1964-70) and later James Callaghan (1974- 79), but it foundered because of economic problems and worsening rela¬
tions with its trade-union allies. In 1983 Michael Foot’s radical program resulted in a massive Labour defeat. Neil Kinnock moved the party toward the centre, but only in 1997 did Tony Blair and his “New Labour” agenda succeed in returning Labour to power.
labour union Association of workers in a particular trade, industry, or plant, formed to obtain improvements in pay, benefits, and working con¬ ditions through collective action. The first fraternal and self-help asso¬ ciations of labourers appeared in Britain in the 18th century, and the era of modern labour unions began in Britain, Europe, and the U.S. in the 19th century. The movement met with hostility from employers and gov¬ ernments, and union organizers were regularly prosecuted. British union¬ ism received its legal foundation in the Trade-Union Act of 1871. In the U.S. the same effect was achieved more slowly through a series of court decisions that whittled away at the use of injunctions and conspiracy laws against unions. The founding of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1886 marked the beginning of a successful, large-scale labour move¬ ment in the U.S. The unions brought together in the AFL were craft unions, which represented workers skilled in a particular craft or trade. Only a few early labour organizers argued in favour of industrial unions, which would represent all workers, skilled or unskilled, in a single indus¬ try. The Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) was founded by unions expelled from the AFL for attempting to organize unskilled work¬ ers, and by 1941 it had assured the success of industrial unionism by organizing the steel and automotive industries (see AFL-CIO). The use of collective bargaining to settle wages, working conditions, and disputes is standard in all noncommunist industrial countries, though union organi¬ zation varies from country to country. In Britain, labour unions displayed a strong inclination to political activity that culminated in the formation of the Labour Party in 1906. In France, too, the major unions became highly politicized; the Confederation Generate du Travail (formed in 1895) was allied with the Communist Party for many years, while the Confederation Frangaise Democratique du Travail is more moderate politically. Japan developed a form of union organization known as enter¬ prise unionism, which represents workers in a single plant or multiplant enterprise rather than within a craft or industry.
Labov Mo-'bovV William (b. Dec. 4, 1927, Rutherford, N.J., U.S.) U.S. linguist. After working for many years as an industrial chemist, Labov began graduate work in 1961, focusing on regional and class differences in English pronunciation on Martha’s Vineyard, Mass., and in New York City, and ways to quantify phonetic change and variation. Most of his later research dealt with the same issues in increasingly sophisticated ways, culminating in his monumental Principles of Linguistic Change (1994). The discovery that American English pronunciation was becom¬ ing regionally more rather than less divergent countered popular belief and attracted the attention of many outside his field.
Labrador Large peninsula, northeastern Canada. Divided between the provinces of Quebec and Newfoundland and Labrador, it occupies an area of about 625,000 sq mi (1,620,000 sq km). Its highest mountains are over 5,000 ft (1,520 m), and its coast is lined with islands. It forms the east¬ ernmost portion of the plateau known as the Canadian Shield. Politically, Labrador refers to the Newfoundland and Labrador portion of the penin¬ sula; the Quebec portion is Ungava Peninsula. Political control of the region was disputed by the two provinces until the Quebec-Newfoundland border was established in 1927.
Labrador Current Surface oceanic current flowing southward along the western side of the Labrador Sea. Originating at the Davis Strait, the current is a combination of the West Greenland Current, the Baffin Island Current, and inflow from Hudson Bay. It maintains temperatures of less than 32°F (0’C) and has a low salinity. The current is limited to the con¬ tinental shelf and reaches depths only slightly greater than 2,000 ft (600 m). It carries several thousand icebergs southward each year.
labradorite Vla-bro-.dor-.fiA Type of feldspar mineral in the plagioclase series that is often valued as a gemstone and as ornamental material for its red, blue, or green iridescence. The mineral is usually gray or brown to black and need not be iridescent. Labradorite is named for its occur¬ rence on the coast of Labrador, Canada.
labyrinth or maze System of intricate passageways and blind alleys. Labyrinth was the name given by the ancient Greeks and Romans to buildings, entirely or partly underground, containing a number of cham¬ bers and passages that made egress difficult. From the European Renais-
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Lacan ► lactation I 1065
sance on, labyrinths or mazes consisting of intricate paths separated by high hedges were a feature of formal gardens.
Lacan \la-'ka n \, Jacques (-Marie-Emile) (b. April 13, 1901, Paris, France—d. Sept. 9, 1981, Paris) French psychoanalyst. A practicing psy¬ chiatrist in Paris for much of his career, Lacan emphasized the primacy of language as the mirror of the unconscious mind and introduced the study of language into psychoanalytic theory. His major achievement was his reinterpretation of Sigmund Freud’s work in terms of structural linguistics. He became a celebrity in France with Ecrits (1966; The Language of the Self) and in the 1970s was a dominant figure in French cultural life as well as a strong influence on American psychoanalytic and literary theory.
Lacandon \,la-kan-'don\ MAYAn Indians who live in a rich tropical rain¬ forest on the border of Mexico and Guatemala. Largely isolated, they maintained a traditional way of life until modern times, fishing, hunting, and growing vegetables and fruits. They spin fibres and weave cloth, tan leather, and make pottery, flutes, dugout canoes, and nets. They have pre¬ served their traditional beliefs. Their total number has declined, and only several hundred remain.
lace Ornamental openwork fabric formed by the looping, interlacing, braiding, or twisting of threads, originally primarily of linen. Almost all high-quality artistic lace is made by one of two techniques: needle lace involves a difficult technique that originated in Italy; bobbin lace is a more widespread craft that originated in Flanders. The art of lace is a European achievement. Fully developed lace did not appear before the Renaissance. By 1600 lace had become a fabric of luxury and an important article of commerce. The Industrial Revolution in the 19th century led to the use of machines to produce less-expensive lace made of cotton, and lace gradually disappeared from both men’s and women’s fashions. By 1920 the industry was dying. Fine handmade lace is still made in Belgium, Slo¬ venia, and elsewhere, but chiefly as souvenirs.