He was the father of Matthew Arnold and grandfather of the novelist Mrs.
Humphry Ward (1851-1920).
Arnolfo di Cambio (b. c. 1245,
Colie di Val d’Elsa—d. 1301/10,
Florence) Italian sculptor and architect active in Florence. He studied under Nicola Pisano and assisted him on the pulpit for Siena Cathedral (1265-68). In 1277 he went to Rome, where he worked for Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily. He also designed and constructed monuments, including the tomb of Cardinal de Braye in San Domenico, Orvieto. In 1296 Arnolfo returned to Florence to undertake his most important com¬ mission, the design of the Duomo (the cathedral of Florence) and the carving of statues for its facade. Other buildings in Florence attributed to him include the Palazzo Vecchio and the church of Santa Croce. The structural and decorative elements of Santa Croce and the Duomo have a unity, balance, and a lightness of movement that demonstrate Arnolfo’s complete mastery of the late 13th-century Gothic architectural vocabu¬ lary. His works embody the transition between the late Gothic and Renais¬ sance architectural sensibilities.
Arnulf (d. Dec. 8, 899) King of Germany. Originally duke of Carinthia, he was elected king of the eastern Franks in 887, deposing his uncle, Charles the Fat. The western Franks, Burgundy, and Italy refused to rec¬ ognize Arnulf, thus dividing the Carolingian empire. He defeated the Vikings (891), ending their raids up the Rhine River, and maintained con¬ trol of Lotharingia (now Lorraine). He invaded Italy at the urging of Pope Formosus, captured Rome (895), and was crowned emperor in 896. Ill¬ ness forced him to return to Germany, however, and the previous emperor continued to rule. Arnulf s last years saw invasions by Magyars and Slavs and the collapse of his power.
aromatherapy Therapy using essential oils and water-based colloids extracted from plant materials to promote physical, emotional, and spiri¬ tual health and balance. Single or combined extracts may be diffused into inhaled air, used in massage oil, or added to bathwater. Inhaled molecules of these extracts stimulate the olfactory nerve, sending messages to the brain’s limbic system (the seat of memory, learning, and emotion) that are said to trigger physiological responses (e.g., eucalyptus relieves con¬ gestion, lavender promotes relaxation). Mainstream medical practitioners question the claim of independent physiological effects; they consider many of the benefits more likely due to the conditioned responses that odors can reinforce or help create. The oils and solutions used have been shown to have certain effects but are not standardized. The few risks involved include allergic reactions.
aromatic compound Any of a large class of organic compounds whose molecular structure includes one or more planar rings of atoms, usually but not always six carbon atoms. The ring’s carbon-carbon bonds (see bonding) are neither single nor double but a type characteristic of these compounds, in which electrons are shared equally with all the atoms around the ring in an electron cloud. The term was first applied c. 1860
Bettina von Arnim, engraving after Armgass von Arnim's copy of a minia¬ ture by an unknown artist.
COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.
Benedict Arnold, engraving by H.B. Hall, 1865.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D.C.
Thomas Arnold, detail of an engraving by H. Cousins, 1840, after an oil painting by Thomas Philips.
COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM; PHOTOGRAPH, J.R. FREEMAN & CO. LTD.
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
108 I Aron ► Arsacid
to a class of hydrocarbons isolated from coal tar and distinguished by odours much stronger than those of other classes of hydrocarbons. In modern chemistry, aromaticity denotes the chemical behaviour, especially the low reactivity, of this class of molecules related to their bonding. The parent compound of this class is benzene (C 6 H 6 ). See also hydrogenation.
Aron \ar-'o n \, Raymond (-Claude-Ferdinand) (b. 1905—d. 1983) French sociologist and historian. After receiving his doctorate from the Ecole Normale Superieure (1930), he taught at the University of Tou¬ louse until 1939. During World War II he joined the Free French and edited their newspaper (1940^44). He later taught at the Ecole Nationale d’Administration, the Sorbonne, and the College de France. He was also a columnist for Le Figaro (1947-77) and L’Express (1977-83). Aron upheld a rationalist humanism that was often contrasted with the Marxist existentialism of his great contemporary and former classmate Jean-Paul Sartre. A continuing theme in his writings was the subject of violence and war.
Aroostook \3-'ru-stuk\ War (1838-39) Bloodless conflict over the disputed boundary between the U.S. state of Maine and the British Cana¬ dian province of New Brunswick. As settlers from both countries moved into the disputed Aroostook area, officials and bands of men from both sides made arrests and took prisoners of “trespassers.” In 1839 U.S. and Canadian troops were ordered to the area. A truce allowed joint occupancy of the territory until 1842, when a satisfactory settlement was reached.
Arp, Jean known as Hans Arp (b. Sept. 16, 1887, Strassburg, Ger.—d. June 7, 1966, Basel, Switz.) French painter, sculptor, and poet. After studying in Weimar, Ger., and at the Academie Julian in Paris, he became involved in the most important movements of early 20th-century art: Der Blaue Reiter in Munich (1912), Cubism in Paris (1914), Dada in Zurich during World War I, Surrealism (1925), and Abstraction-Creation (1931). During these years he produced polychrome relief carvings in wood, cut-paper compositions, and, in the 1930s, his most distinctive sculptural works: abstract forms that suggest animals and plants. He also wrote poetry.
Arrabal \,ar-ra-'bal\, Fernando (b. Aug. 11, 1932, Melilla, Spanish Morocco) Spanish French Absurdist playwright, novelist, and filmmaker. He turned to writing in the 1950s, and in 1955 he began studying drama in Paris, where he remained. His early plays, in particular Picnic on the Battlefield , brought him to the attention of the French avant-garde. After the mid 1960s his plays evolved into what he termed Theatre Panique (“Panic Theater”); typical of this period is And They Put Handcuffs on the Flowers. His dramatic and fictional world is often violent, cruel, and por¬ nographic.
arrastra Vo-'ras-troX Drag-stone mill for pulverizing ores to isolate silver by the patio process, apparently used in pre-Columbian America. The silver ore was crushed and ground by mule power in the arrastras (shallow cir¬ cular pits paved with stone). Large blocks of stone attached by beams to a central rotating post were dragged around the arrastra, reducing the ore to a fine mud. Further steps resulted in the isolating of the silver.
arrest Restraint and seizure of a person by someone (e.g., a police officer) acting under legal authority. An officer may arrest a person who is committing or attempting to commit a crime in the officer’s presence. Arrest is also permitted if the officer reasonably believes that a crime has been committed and that the person arrested is the guilty party. A court or judicial officer may issue an arrest warrant on a showing of probable cause. Most states restrict or prohibit arrest in civil (noncriminal) cases; an example of occasionally permitted civil arrest is the taking into cus¬ tody of a debtor who might otherwise abscond. In the U.S., suspects must be warned of their rights when they are arrested (see Miranda v. Arizona ). An unlawful arrest is regarded as false imprisonment and usually invali¬ dates any evidence collected in connection with it. See also rights of the accused; grand jury; indictment.