Libya officially Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
\ja-m3-hi-'re-y3\ Country, North Africa. Area: 679,362 sq mi (1,759,540 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 5,853,000. Capitaclass="underline" Tripoli. Berbers, once
the major ethnic group, have been largely assimilated into the predominant Arab cul¬ ture; sub-Saharan Africans are among the other ethnic groups. Languages: Arabic (official), Berber (Amazigh). Religions: Islam (official; predominantly Sunni); also Christianity. Currency: Libyan dinar. All but two tiny fractions of Libya are covered by the Sahara: Tri- politania in the northwest and Cyrenaica in the northeast. Tripolitania is Libya’s most important agricultural region and its most populated area. The production and export of petroleum are the basis of Libya’s economy; other resources include natural gas, manganese, and gypsum. Livestock raising, including sheep and goats, is important in the north. Libya is a socialist state with one policy-making body; the head of government is the prime minister, but Muammar al-Qaddafi has been the de facto head of state and real power in Libya since 1970. The early history is that of Fezzan, Cyrenaica, and Tripolitania, which the Ottoman Empire combined under one regency in Tripoli in the 16th century. In 1911 Italy claimed
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1110 I Libyan Desert ► Liebermann
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control of Libya, and, by the outbreak of World War II (1939-45), 150,000 Italians had immigrated there. The scene of much fighting in the war, it became an independent state in 1951 and a member of the Arab League in 1953. The discovery of petroleum in 1959 brought wealth to Libya. A decade later, a group of army officers led by al-Qaddafi deposed the king and made the country an Islamic republic. Under al-Qaddafi, Libya sup¬ ported the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) and allegedly pro¬ vided aid for international terrorist groups. Intermittent warfare with Chad that had begun in the 1970s ended with Libya’s defeat in 1987. A U.S. trade embargo (endorsed by the UN), imposed on Libya in the 1990s for its purported connection to terrorism, began to be lifted in 2003.
Libyan Desert Northeastern portion of the Sahara, extending from eastern Libya through southwestern Egypt into northwestern Sudan. The highest point is Mount 'Uwaynat (6,345 ft [1,934 m]), located where the three countries meet. Harsh and arid, it is characterized by bare rocky plateaus and sandy plains.
Licchavi Vlich-3-ve\ era (c. 450-c. 750) In Nepal, the period of rule by the Licchavi dynasty. The dynasty originated in India, used Sanskrit as a court language, and issued Indian-style coins. It maintained close ties to India and also had economic and political relations with Tibet, thus becom¬ ing a cultural centre linking central and southern Asia. The era ended when Amsuvarman founded the Thakuri dynasty in the mid-8th century.
lichee See utchi
lichen \H-kan\ Any of about 15,000 species of small, colourful, scaly plants that consist of a symbiotic association of algae (usually green) and fungi (see fungus). These extremely hardy, slow growers often are pio¬ neer species in sparse environments such as mountaintops and the far North. Fungal cells, anchored to the substrate with hairlike growths (rhizines), form the base. In the body (thallus), numerous algal cells are distributed among fewer fungal cells. Through photosynthesis the algal cells provide simple sugars and vitamins for both partners in this symbi¬ otic association. The fungal cells protect the algal cells from environmen¬ tal extremes. Lichens may form a thin, crustlike, tightly bound covering over their substrate (e.g., cracks in rocks), or they may be small and leafy, with loose attachments to the substrate. Their colours range from brown to bright orange or yellow. In far northern Europe and Asia, lichens pro¬ vide two-thirds of caribou and reindeer food. They have been the source of medicines and dyes.
Lichtenstein Vlik-ton-.stln, 'lik-ton-.stenV, Roy (b. Oct. 27, 1923, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Sept. 29, 1997, New York City) U.S. painter, sculp¬ tor, and graphic artist. He at first embraced Abstract Expressionism, but in the 1960s he turned to Pop art for which he is best known. Especially popular are his brilliantly coloured paintings in the style of large-scale comic strips, such as Whaam (1963). In the mid 1960s he began making Pop versions of well-known paintings by artists such as Claude Monet, Pablo Picasso, and Henri Matisse. In the 1970s he also made sculptures, in which he reproduced Art Deco forms. In the 1980s he painted a five- story-high mural in a New York City office building.
Licinius \b-'si-ne-9s\ orig. Valerius Licinianus Licinius (d. 325) Roman emperor (308-324). Bom of Illyrian peasant stock, he advanced in the army and in 308 was appointed augustus by his friend the emperor Galerius. Because the empire was split up among several emperors at that time (see tetrarch), his domain was confined to Pannonia. After the death of Galerius in 311, he allied with Constantine I, defeated his competitor Maximinus in Asia Minor, and partitioned the empire (313). Although reputedly converted to Christianity, he grew alienated and launched a campaign of mild persecution against the Christians c. 320. Constantine soon drove him from power and had him executed.
Licking River River, eastern Kentucky, U.S. It flows about 320 mi (515 km) generally northwest to enter the Ohio River at Covington, Ky., oppo¬ site Cincinnati, Ohio. It courses through an area of saline springs, which originally attracted animals to its salt licks.
Licklider Vlik-.lid-srV, Joseph Carl Robnett (b. March 11, 1915, St. Louis, Mo., U.S.—d. June 26, 1990, Arlington, Mass.) U.S. scientist. He studied math and physics and received a doctorate in psychology from the University of Rochester (N.Y.). He lectured at Harvard University before joining the faculty at MIT (1949-57, 1966-85). As a group leader at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the 1960s, he encouraged research into time-sharing and helped lay the groundwork for computer networking and ARPANET, the predecessor of the Internet. He
is known for his extensive work on human-computer interaction and inter¬ faces. His influence led to the first American advanced-degree programs in computer science.
licorice \'li-krish\ Perennial herb (Glycyrrhiza glabra) of the pea fam¬ ily (see legume) and the flavouring, confection, and medicine made from its roots. Native to southern Europe, the plant is cultivated around the Mediterranean and in parts of the U.S. It grows to 3 ft (1 m) and bears graceful compound leaves, blue- violet flower clusters, and flat, flex¬ ible seedpods 3-4 in. (7-10 cm) long. It is 42 times sweeter than table sugar, and its flavour, similar to anise, can mask unpleasant medicinal tastes.
Liddell Hart \ 1 lid- 3 l-'hart\ / Sir Basil (Henry) (b. Oct. 31, 1895,
Paris, France—-d. Jan. 29, 1970,
Marlow, Buckinghamshire, Eng.)
British military historian and strategist. He left Cambridge University to join the British army at the outbreak of World War I and retired as a cap¬ tain in 1927. He was an early advocate of air power and mechanized tank warfare. He wrote for London newspapers from 1925 to 1945. His writ¬ ings on strategy, which emphasized the elements of mobility and surprise, were more influential in Germany than in France or England; his “expand¬ ing torrent” theory of attack became the basis for German blitzkrieg war¬ fare in 1939-41. The author of more than 30 books, he was knighted in
Lie \'le\, Jonas (Lauritz Idemil) (b. Nov. 6, 1833, Hokksund in Eiker, Nor.—d. July 5, 1908, Stavern) Norwegian novelist. He wrote his first novel. The Visionary or Pictures from Nordland (1870), with his wife’s collaboration. Later novels include The Barque “Future ” (1872), One of Life's Slaves (1883), and the classic The Family at Gilje (1883), which deals with the position of women. He sought to reflect in his writings the nature, folk life, and social spirit of his country. With Henrik Ibsen, Bjorn- stjerne Bjornson, and Alexander Kielland (1849-1906), he is considered one of “the four great ones” of 19th-century Norwegian literature.