He is often shown wearing princely ornaments and holding aloft the sword of wisdom, and he is some¬ times seated on a lion or a blue lotus.
His cult spread widely in China in the 8th century, and Mount Wutai in Shanxi province, which is dedicated to him, is covered with his temples.
Mankiewicz Vman-ki-.witsV Joseph L(eo) (b. Feb. 11, 1909,
Wilkes-Barre, Pa., U.S.—d. Feb. 5,
1993, Mount Kisco, N.Y.) U.S. film director, producer, and screenwriter.
He wrote scripts for Paramount from 1929 and later produced movies such as The Philadelphia Story (1940) and Woman of the Year (1942).
Known for his witty, urbane dialogue and memorable characters, he wrote and directed films such as A Letter to Three Wives (1949, Academy Awards for best director and screenplay). All About Eve (1950, Academy Awards for best picture, director, and screenplay), and The Barefoot Con- tessa (1954), and directed Julius Caesar (1953), Suddenly Last Summer (1959), and the disastrously expensive Cleopatra (1963). His older brother, Herman (1897-1953), was a screenwriter and a famous wit, best remembered as the principal author of Citizen Kane (1941, Academy Award).
Manley, Michael (Norman) (b. Dec. 10, 1924, St. Andrew, Jam.—d. March 6, 1997, Kingston) Jamaican political leader. Son of a prime minister of Jamaica and a sculptor, Manley was a leader of the Peo¬ ple’s National Party and the National Worker’s Union before becoming prime minister in 1972. His leftist government made significant improve¬ ments in housing, education, and health care, but a dramatic rise in oil prices precipitated an economic crisis. Much of the middle class fled the country, unemployment rose to 30%, and violence broke out in the run-up to the 1980 election, in which he was defeated. He was reelected in 1989, this time as a moderate; he stepped down in 1992 for health reasons.
Mann, Horace (b. May 4, 1796, Franklin, Mass., U.S.—d. Aug. 2, 1859, Yellow Springs, Ohio) U.S. educator, the first great American advocate of public education. Raised in poverty, Mann educated himself at the Franklin, Mass., town library and gained admission to Brown Univer¬ sity. He later studied law and was elected to the state legislature. As state secretary of education he vig¬ orously espoused educational reform, arguing that in a democratic society education should be free and universal, nonsectarian, and reliant on well-trained, professional teach¬ ers. In his later years he served in the U.S. Congress (1848-53) and as first president of Antioch College, (1853—
59) and he worked resolutely to end SLAVERY.
Mann Vman\, Thomas (b. June 6,
1875, Liibeck, Ger.—d. Aug. 12,
1955, near Zurich, Switz.) German novelist and essayist, considered the greatest German novelist of the 20th century. After a brief period of office work, Mann devoted himself to writing, as had his elder brother Heinrich (1871-1950). Buddenbrooks (1901), his first novel, was an elegy for old bourgeois virtues. In the novella Death in Venice (1912), a sombre mas¬ terpiece, he took up the tragic dilemma of the artist in a collapsing soci¬ ety. Though ardently patriotic at the start of World War I, after 1919 he slowly revised his views of the authoritarian German state. His great novel The Magic Mountain (1924) clarified his growing espousal of Enlighten¬ ment principles as one strand of a complex and multifaceted whole. An outspoken opponent of Nazism, he fled to Switzerland on Adolf Hitler’s accession; he settled in the U.S. in 1938 but returned to Switzerland in 1952. His tetralogy Joseph and His Brothers (1933-43) concerns the bib¬ lical Joseph. Doctor Faustus (1947), his most directly political novel, analyzes the darker aspects of the German soul. The often hilarious Felix Krull, Confidence Man (1954) remained unfinished. He is noted for his finely wrought style enriched by humour, irony, and parody and for his subtle, many-layered narratives of vast intellectual scope. His essays examined such figures as Leo Tolstoy, Sigmund Freud, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Nietzsche, Anton Chekhov, and Friedrich Schiller. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1929.
Mannerheim Vma-nor-.hamV, Carl Gustaf (Emil) (b. June 4, 1867, Villnas, Fin.—d. Jan. 27, 1951, Lausanne, Switz.) Finnish soldier and president of Finland (1944^-6). A career officer in the Russian imperial army (1889-1917), he commanded the anti-Bolshevik forces (1918) in the Finnish Civil War and expelled the Soviet forces. He served as regent of Finland (1918-19) until the new republic was declared. As chairman of the national defense council (1931-39) he oversaw construction of the Mannerheim line of fortifications across the Karelian Isthmus. As com¬ mander in chief of Finnish forces (1939-40, 1941—44), he won initial successes against greatly superior Soviet forces in the Russo-Finnish War (1939-40). Named president of the Finnish republic in 1944, he negoti¬ ated a peace agreement with the Soviets.
Mannerism Artistic style that predominated in Italy from the end of the High Renaissance in the 1520s to the beginnings of the Baroque period c. 1590. Mannerism originated in Florence and Rome but ultimately spread as far as central and northern Europe. A reaction to the harmoni¬ ous Classicism and idealized naturalism of High Renaissance art, Man¬ nerism was concerned with solving intricate artistic problems, such as portraying nudes in complex poses. The figures in Mannerist works fre-
Manjusri, basalt figure from Java,
1343; formerly in the Museum fur Indische Kunst, Staatliche Museen, Ber¬ lin (missing from 1945).
COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM FUR INDISCHE KUNST, STAATUCHE MUSEEN, BERLIN
O' *v
Horace Mann
COURTESY OF ANTIOCH COLLEGE, YELLOW SPRINGS, OHIO
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Mannheim ► Mantineia I 1187
quently have graceful but queerly elongated limbs, small heads, and styl¬ ized facial features, while their poses seem difficult or contrived. The deep, linear perspectival space of High Renaissance painting is flattened and obscured so that the figures appear as a decorative arrangement of forms in front of a flat background of indeterminate dimensions. Man¬ nerists sought a continuous refinement of form and concept, pushing exag¬ geration and contrast to great limits. After being superseded by the Baroque style, it was seen as decadent and degenerative. By the 20th cen¬ tury it was appreciated anew for its technical bravura and elegance. Major artists who practiced the style include Parmigianino, Federico Zuccaro, and II Bronzino.
Mannheim City (pop., 2002: city, 308,385; metro, area, 1,568,679), southwestern Germany. One of Europe’s largest inland ports, it is situated on the Rhine River at the mouth of the Neckar River. It was a village in the 8th century, fortified by Elector Frederick IV, and chartered in 1607. The town was twice destroyed in wars during the 17th century and was rebuilt when the Palatine electors (see Palatinate) moved their residence there in 1720. Destroyed again in 1795, the city was rebuilt and became a centre of the revolutionary movement in 1848. Mannheim is an industrial cen¬ tre, manufacturing chemicals, textiles, and fertilizers.
Mannheim Vman- 1 hlm\ / Karl (b. March 27, 1893, Budapest, Austria- Hungary—d. Jan. 9, 1947, London, Eng.) Hungarian sociologist. Mann¬ heim taught in Germany (University of Heidelberg, 1926-30; Frankfurt am Main, 1930-33) before the rise of Adolph Hitler. He was invited to England by political scientist Harold Laski and for the rest of his career taught there (London School of Economics, 1933—43; University of Lon¬ don, 1943-47). He helped found the sociology of knowledge, the study of how knowledge is produced and maintained in societies. He empha¬ sized the role that ideology plays in shaping knowledge, a view he dis¬ cussed in his major work, Ideology and Utopia (1929).
Manning, Henry Edward known as Cardinal Manning (b. July 15, 1808, Totteridge, Hertfordshire, Eng.—d. Jan. 14, 1892, London) Brit¬ ish Roman Catholic cardinal. The son of a banker and member of Par¬ liament, he was ordained a priest of the Church of England in 1833. A member of the Oxford movement, he became a Catholic in 1851 and was ordained a priest later that year. He rose rapidly in rank, being appointed archbishop of Westminster in 1865 and cardinal in 1875. He favoured the centralization of authority in the church (Ultramontanism) and supported stronger wording on papal infallibility than was eventually adopted by the First Vatican Council. He established many schools and was highly regarded for his concern for social welfare.