mantra In Hinduism and Buddhism, a sacred utterance (syllable, word, or verse) believed to possess mystical or spiritual power. Mantras may be spoken aloud or uttered in thought, and they may be either repeated or sounded only once. Most have no apparent verbal meaning, but they are thought to have profound significance and to serve as distillations of spiritual wisdom. Repetition of a mantra can induce a trancelike state and can lead the participant to a higher level of spiritual awareness. Widely used mantras include om in Hinduism and om mani padme hum in Tibetan Buddhism.
Manu Vmo-niA In the mythology of India, the first man and the legend¬ ary author of the Manu-smrti. Manu appears in the Vedas as the performer of the first sacrifice. He is also known as the first king, and most rulers of medieval India claimed him as an ancestor. In the story of the great flood, Manu combines the characteristics of Noah and Adam. He built a boat after being warned of the flood by a fish. His boat came to rest on a mountaintop, and as the flood receded Manu poured out an oblation of milk and butter. A year later a woman calling herself the “daughter of Manu” was born from the waters, and these two became the parents of a new human race to replenish the earth.
Manu-smrti Vmo-nii-'smri-teV officially Manava-dharma- shastra Most authoritative of the books of the Hindu law code {Dharma-shastra). It is attributed to the legendary first man and lawgiver, Manu. In its present form it dates from the 1st century bc. It prescribes the dharma of each Hindu, stating the obligations attached to his or her social class and stage of life. Making no distinction between religious and secular law, it deals with cosmogony, sacraments, and other religious top¬ ics as well as with marriage, hospitality, dietary restrictions, the conduct of women, and the law of kings.
Manual of Discipline or Rule of the Community Major docu¬ ment produced by the Essene community of Jews. The manual, written on scrolls found in 1947 in caves at Qumran (see Dead Sea Scrolls), explains the sect’s religious and moral ideals and describes its admission ceremony, mystical doctrines, and organizational and disciplinary statutes.
Manuel \mon-'wel\ I known as Manuel the Fortunate (b. May 31,
1469, Alcochete, Port.—d. December 1521, Lisbon) King of Portugal (1495-1521). He opened trade with India and Brazil, sending Pedro Alva- res Cabral on a voyage to East Asia (1500), and gained riches from Vasco da Gama’s voyage around Africa. Manuel’s claims to the newly discov¬ ered lands were confirmed by the pope and recognized by Spain. In order to marry the daughter of Ferdinand V and Isabella, he agreed to expel Jews and Muslims from Portugal (1496). His reign saw the founding of Por¬ tuguese outposts in India and the Malay Peninsula, and his explorers
reached China in 1513. Manuel also centralized Portuguese administra¬ tion, reformed the courts, and revised the legal code.
Manuel I Comnenus \ , man-yu-ol...kam- , ne-n9s\ (b. Nov. 28, 1118—d. Sept. 24, 1180) Byzantine emperor (1143-80). The son of John II Comnenus, he renewed alliances in the West against the Normans in Sic¬ ily and Antioch. He took Apulia briefly (1155) but was defeated at Brin¬ disi (1156) by a joint force of Germans, Venetians, and Normans, ending Byzantine control in Italy. He reasserted his authority over the Crusader states (1158-59) and extended his influence among the Hungarians and Serbs, adding Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia to the empire in 1167. He launched a campaign against the Seljuq Turks (1176), and his defeat showed the waning of Byzantine power and ended his plan of restoring the Roman Empire.
Manuel II Palaeologus \ , man-yu-3l...,pa-le- , a-l9-g9s\ (b. July 27, 1350—d. July 21, 1425) Byzantine emperor (1391-1425). He was crowned coemperor with his father, John V Palaeologus, in 1373; his brother Andronicus IV seized the throne in 1376, but Manuel and his father regained it with Turkish aid in 1379. They were obliged to pay trib¬ ute to the sultan, who later helped them quash a rebellion by Androni¬ cus’s son (1390). Manuel was forced to live as a vassal at the Turkish court but escaped after his father’s death (1391). A treaty in 1403 kept peace with the Turks until 1421, when Manuel’s son and coemperor John VIII meddled in Turkish affairs. After the Turks besieged Constantinople (1422) and took southern Greece (1423), Manuel signed a humiliating treaty and entered a monastery.
manufacturing Any industry that makes products from raw materials by the use of manual labour or machines and that is usually carried out systematically with a division of labour. In a more limited sense, manu¬ facturing is the fabrication or assembly of components into finished prod¬ ucts on a fairly large scale. Among the most important manufacturing industries are those that produce aircraft, automobiles, chemicals, cloth¬ ing, computers, consumer electronics, electrical equipment, furniture, heavy machinery, refined petroleum products, ships, steel, and tools. See also factory; mass production.
manure Organic material that is used to fertilize land, usually consist¬ ing of the feces and urine of domestic livestock, with or without litter such as straw, hay, or bedding. Some countries also use human excrement (“night soil”). Though livestock manure is less rich in nitrogen, phospho¬ rus, and potash than synthetic fertilizers and therefore must be applied in much greater quantities, it is rich in organic matter, or HUMUS, and thus improves the capacity of the soil to absorb and store water, thereby pre¬ venting erosion. Because manure must be carefully stored and spread in order to derive the most benefit, some farmers decline to expend the nec¬ essary time and effort. Manufactured chemical fertilizers, though more concentrated and efficient, are also more costly and more likely to cause excess runoff and pollution. See also green manure.
Manutius \m3- l nu-shos\, Aldus, the Elder Italian Aldo Manuzio il Vecchio (b. 1449, Bassiano, Papal States—d. Feb. 6, 1515, Venice) Italian printer, the leading figure of his time in printing, publishing, and typography. In 1490 he settled in Venice and gathered around him a group of compositors and Greek scholars. He produced the first printed editions of many Greek and Latin classics and is particularly associated with the production of small, carefully edited pocket-size books printed in inex¬ pensive editions. The Hypnerotomachia Poliphili (1499) of Francesco Colonna, with outstanding woodcuts, was his most famous book. After his death, the Aldine Press, which he founded, was taken over by members of his family, who probably printed 1,000 editions between 1495 and 1595.
Manx cat Breed of domestic cat believed to have come from the Isle of Man. Affectionate, loyal, and courageous, the compact Manx is distin¬ guished by its taillessness and hopping gait. The rump is distinctly higher than the shoulders because the hind legs are longer than the forelegs. The Manx may be born with a tail, but ideally it should be tailless. The double coat may be any of several colours.
Manzanar \ , man-z9-,nar\ Relocation Center Internment facility for Japanese Americans during World War II. Fear that Japan would invade the western U.S. with the aid of spies living in the U.S. led the government to force Japanese Americans in western states to relocate to one of ten camps, of which Manzanar, in California, was the first to be established and the best known. During its operation, over 11,000 people were confined there. The California centre was named a national historic site in 1992.