John Jacob Astor, detail of an oil paint¬ ing by Gilbert Stuart, 1794; in the Brook Club, New York.
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Astrolabe, 11 th century.
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century ad) influenced astronomical thought for over 1,300 years. In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus assigned the central position to the Sun (see Copernican system), ushering in the age of modern astronomy. The 17th century saw several momentous developments: Johannes Kepler’s discovery of the principles of planetary motion, Galileo’s application of the telescope to astronomical observation, and Isaac Newton’s formulation of the laws of motion and gravitation. In the 19th century, spectroscopy and photography made it possible to study the physical properties of planets, stars, and nebulae, leading to the development of astrophysics. In 1927 Edwin Hubble discovered that the universe, hitherto thought static, was expanding (see expanding universe). In 1937 the first radio telescope was built. The first artificial satellite, Sputnik, was launched in 1957, inau¬ gurating the age of space exploration; spacecraft that could escape Earth’s gravitational pull and return data about the solar system were launched beginning in 1959 (see Luna; Pioneer). See also big bang; cosmology;
GAMMA-RAY ASTRONOMY; INFRARED ASTRONOMY; RADIO AND RADAR ASTRONOMY; ULTRAVIOLET ASTRONOMY; X-RAY ASTRONOMY.
astrophysics Branch of astronomy concerned mainly with the proper¬ ties and structures of cosmic objects, including the universe as a whole. Starting in the 19th century, spectroscopy and photography were applied to astronomical research, making it possible to study the brightness, tem¬ perature, and chemical composition of cosmic objects. It was soon real¬ ized that the properties of these bodies could be fully understood only in terms of the physics of their atmospheres and interiors. X-ray astronomy, GAMMA-RAY ASTRONOMY, INFRARED ASTRONOMY, ULTRAVIOLET ASTRONOMY, and RADIO and radar astronomy are all basically concerned with extending electro¬ magnetic coverage beyond the visible spectrum to constrain the physical characteristics of astronomical objects.
Astruc \as-trIEk\ of Lunel orig. Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph (b. 1250?, Lunel, near Montpellier, France—d. after 1306) French Jewish scholar. He revered Maimonides but argued that Mai- monides’ followers undermined faith by reading the Bible allegorically. Through letters he persuaded the powerful rabbi Solomon ben Abraham Adret (1235-1310) of Barcelona, Spain, to forbid the study or teaching of science and philosophy by those under 25 (1305). The resulting con¬ troversy almost split the Jewish communities of France and Spain. A schism was prevented when Philip IV of France expelled the Jews from France in 1306, and Astruc settled in Majorca.
Asturias \as-'tur-e-os\ Autonomous community (pop., 2001: 1,062,998) and province, on the Bay of Biscay, northwestern Spain. It occupies an area of 4,094 sq mi (10,604 sq km); its capital is Oviedo. Coextensive with the historical principality of Asturias, it is largely covered by moun¬ tains that isolate it from other Spanish provinces. Its population and indus¬ tries are concentrated in the Nalon River valley, whose extensive coalfields make the province Spain’s mining centre. Conquered by the Romans under Augustus in 25 bc, it was later ruled by the Visigoths. It became part of the kingdom of Leon on the accession of Alfonso III in 866. It was made a principality in 1388, a province in 1838, and an autonomous community in 1981.
Asturias \as-'tur-e-9s\, Miguel Angel (b. Oct. 19, 1899, Guatemala City, Guat.—d. June 9, 1974,
Madrid, Spain) Guatemalan poet, novelist, and diplomat. He moved to Paris in 1923 and became a Surreal¬ ist under the influence of Andre Bre¬ ton. His first major works appeared in the 1930s. He began his diplo¬ matic career in 1946; it culminated in his serving as ambassador to France 1966-70. Asturias’s writings combine a Mayan mysticism with an epic impulse toward social protest, especially against U.S. and oligar¬ chic power. In Men of Maize (1949), often considered his masterpiece, he depicts the seemingly irreversible wretchedness of the Indian peasant.
Other major novels, some of which employ the style of magic realism, are El Sehor Presidente (1946), a fictional denunciation of Guatemala’s dictator; The Cyclone (1950); The Green Pope (1954); and The Eyes of the Interred (1960). He won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1967.
Asuncion Xa-.sun-'syonN in full Nuestra Senora de la Asuncion
City (pop., 2002 prelim.: 513,339), capital of Paraguay. It lies on the Paraguay River near its confluence with the Pilcomayo River. Founded in 1537 by Spanish coNQUiSTADORes, it replaced Buenos Aires as the head¬ quarters of Spanish colonial activities in eastern South America during the period of the latter’s depopulation (1541-80). In 1731 Asuncion was the site of one of the first major rebellions against Spanish rule. The city declared independence from both Spain and Argentina in 1811. Today it dominates social, cultural, and economic trends in Paraguay.
Asvaghosa V.ash-vo'-go-shoN (b. ad 80?, Ayodhya, India—d. 150?, Peshawar) Indian philosopher and poet considered the father of Sanskrit drama. Born a Brahman, he opposed Buddhism until a debate with a Bud¬ dhist scholar led to his conversion. Asvaghosa became known as a bril¬ liant orator, and he spoke on Mahayana at the fourth Buddhist council. He is considered India’s greatest poet before Kalidasa. Works attributed to him include the Buddhacarita (“Life of the Buddha”) and the Mahalan- kara (“Book of Glory”).
asvamedha V.ash-vo-'ma-doV Rite of the Vedic religion in ancient India, performed by a king to celebrate his supremacy. A stallion was selected and allowed to roam freely for a year under the protection of a royal guard. It was said to symbolize the progress of the sun and the power of the king. If it was not captured during the year, it was brought back to the capital along with the rulers of lands it had entered. It was then sacrificed at a public ceremony, and the king assumed the title of universal mon¬ arch. The Buddha condemned the practice, but it was revived in the 2nd century bc and may have continued as late as the 11th century ad.
Aswan City (pop., 1996 est.: 219,017), southeastern Egypt. It lies on the Nile River just north of Lake Nasser. In ancient times it was the south¬ ern frontier of pharaonic Egypt. Later known as Syene, it served as a frontier garrison post for the Romans, Ottomans, and British. Modem Aswan is located near the old Aswan Dam (completed 1902) and the Aswan High Dam.
Aswan High Dam Dam across the Nile River, north of Aswan, Egypt. Built 4 mi (6 km) upstream from the earlier Aswan Dam (1902), it is 364 ft (111 m) high and 12,562 ft (3,830 m) long. Differences with Gamal Abdel Nasser led the U.S. and Britain to withdraw their financial support of the project in 1956, whereupon Nasser turned to the Soviet Union for assistance. The dam, completed in 1970, impounds the reservoir Lake Nasser and controls the annual Nile flood, releasing flood waters when needed for irrigation; it also enables the production of great amounts of electric power. Its construction necessitated the relocation of the ancient Abu Simbel ruins.
asylum Protection from arrest and extradition given to political refu¬ gees by a country or by an embassy that has diplomatic immunity. No one has a legal right to asylum, and the sheltering state, which has the legal right to grant asylum, is under no obligation to give it. It is thus a right of the state, not the individual. Its traditional use has been to protect those accused of political offenses such as treason, desertion, sedition, and espio¬ nage. Beginning in the 20th century, asylum also was granted to those who could demonstrate a significant risk of politically motivated perse¬ cution if they returned to their home countries.