Menno Simonsz. Vsl-monz,
'se-mons\ or Menno Simons (b.
1496, Witmarsum, Friesland—d.
Jan. 31, 1561, near Liibeck, Hol¬ stein) Dutch Anabaptist leader. Born into a peasant family, he was ordained a Roman Catholic priest, but, doubting the doctrine of transub- stantiation, he came under the influ¬ ence of Lutheranism and withdrew from the church in 1536. Convinced that infant baptism was wrong and that only people of mature faith were eligible for membership in the church, he became a leader in the peaceful wing of the Anabaptist movement in 1537. Pronounced a heretic, he was in constant danger of
arrest for the rest of his life but continued to organize Anabaptist groups. He wrote and printed many theological works, and his followers founded the Mennonite Church.
Mennonite Vme-no-.nflA Member of a Protestant church named for Menno Simonsz. They trace their origins to the Swiss Brethren (established 1525), nonconformists who rejected infant baptism and stressed the sepa¬ ration of church and state. Persecution scattered them across Europe; they found political freedom first in the Netherlands and northern Poland, and from there moved to Ukraine and Russia. They first emigrated to North America in 1663. Many Russian Mennonites emigrated to the U.S. Mid¬ west and to Canada in the 1870s when they lost their exemption from Russian military service. Today Mennonites are found in many parts of the world, especially in North and South America. Their creed stresses the authority of the Scriptures, the example of the early church, and bap¬ tism as a confession of faith. They value simplicity of life, and many refuse to swear oaths or serve in the military. The various Mennonite groups include the strictly observant Amish and Hutterites as well as the more moderate Mennonite church.
Menominee Vmo-'na-mo-.neV North American Indian people who live mostly in northeastern Wisconsin, U.S., in a small portion of their tradi¬ tional territory along the Menominee River at the present-day Wisconsin- Michigan border. Their name is derived from an Ojibwa word meaning “person of the wild rice.” Their language is a member of the Algonquian language family. At the time of first contact, the Menominee lived in vil¬ lages of dome-shaped houses and collected wild plants, fished, and hunted to obtain food. Originally organized into clans, their social organization changed as a result of the fur trade, when they scattered in mobile bands. In 1852 the U.S. government moved most of the tribe to a reservation in Wisconsin. Sporadic uprisings occurred into the early 20th century, and political opposition was renewed in the 1960s and ’70s. There are about 8,000 enrolled members of the Menominee.
menopause Final cessation of menstruation, ending female fertility. It usually begins between ages 45 and 55. A gradual decline in function of the ovaries reduces estrogen production. Ovulation becomes irregular and gradually ceases. The length of the menstrual cycle and periods may vary; flow may lessen or increase. Adjustment of the endocrine system to estro¬ gen reduction causes hot flashes, often at night, with a warm sensation, flushing, and sweating; other symptoms, such as irritability and head¬ aches, may be related more to reactions to aging. Removal or destruction of the ovaries to treat disease causes artificial menopause, with similar but more sudden effects. Changes in hormone balance usually cause no physical or mental disturbances. However, the protective effect of estro¬ gen against osteoporosis and atherosclerosis is lost, and risks of fracture and coronary heart disease increase.
menorah \m3-'nor-3\ Multibranched candelabra used by Jews during the festival of Hanukkah. It holds nine candles (or has nine receptacles for oil). Eight of the candles stand for the eight days of Hanukkah—one is lit the first day, two the second, and so on. The ninth candle, or sham- mash (“servant”) light—usually set in the centre and raised above the others—is used to light the others.
The menorah is an imitation of the seven-branched golden candelabra of the Tabernacle, which signified the seven days of creation. The menorah is also an ancient symbol of Jewish identity and the official symbol of the modern state of Israel.
Menotti Vms-'na-teV Gian Carlo
(b. July 7, 1911, Cadegliano, Italy)
Italian-born U.S. composer, libret¬ tist, and stage director. Having writ¬ ten an opera by age 10, he spent his early teens absorbing the repertoire at La Scala. Arturo Toscanini recom¬ mended study at the Curtis Institute; there he met Samuel Barber, who would become his lifelong companion. In 1939 he produced the radio opera The Old Maid and the Thief, The Island God (1942) was an unsuc-
Menno Simons, engraving by Christo¬ pher van Sichem, 1605-08.
COURTESY OF THE MENNONITE LIBRARY AND ARCHIVES, NORTH NEWTON, KANSAS
Roman soldiers carrying the menorah from the Temple of Jerusalem, ad 70; detail of a relief on the Arch of Titus, Rome, ad 81.
AUNARI/ART RESOURCE, NEW YORK
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Menshevik ► mercantile agency I 1237
cessful commission for the Metropolitan Opera. The Medium (1946) had a Broadway run, and The Consul (1950, Pulitzer Prize) was also success¬ ful. The highly popular Amahl and the Night Visitors (1951), for televi¬ sion, was followed by The Saint ofBleecker Street (1955, Pulitzer Prize). In 1958 he founded the Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto, Italy; it enjoyed great success, and in 1977 he founded a New World counterpart in Charleston, S.C.
Menshevik Vmen-sho-vikA Member of the non-Leninist wing of the Russian Social-Democratic Workers' Party. The group evolved in 1903 when L. Martov called for a mass party modeled after western European groups, as opposed to Vladimir Iuch Lenin’s plan to restrict the party to pro¬ fessional revolutionaries. When Lenin’s followers obtained a majority on the party central committee, they called themselves Bolsheviks (“those of the majority”), and Martov and his group became the Mensheviks (“those of the minority”). The Mensheviks played active roles in the Russian Revolution of 1905 and in the St. Petersburg soviet, but they became divided over World War I and later by the Russian Revolution of 1917. They attempted to form a legal opposition party but in 1922 were perma¬ nently suppressed.
Menshikov Ymyen-shi-kdfX, Aleksandr (Danilovich) (b. Nov. 16, 1673, Moscow, Russia—d. Nov. 23, 1729, Berezov, Siberia, Russian Empire) Russian soldier and administrator. In 1686 he became an orderly for Peter I and soon was the tsar’s favourite. Menshikov led troops to vic¬ tories in the Second Northern War, including the Battle of Poltava, after which he received the title of field marshal (1709). As an administrator from 1714, he was criticized for corrupt practices as he amassed power and wealth. After Peter’s death in 1725, Menshikov succeeded in having his ally Catherine I proclaimed empress, making him the virtual ruler of Russia. After her death in 1727, he arranged to have his daughter marry the young Tsar Peter II, but his enemies turned Peter against him and forced Menshikov’s exile to Siberia.
menstruation Periodic discharge from the vagina of blood, secretions, and shed mucous lining of the uterus (endometrium). The endometrium prepares to receive a fertilized egg by thickening and producing secre¬ tions. If the egg released by the ovary is not fertilized, the endometrium breaks down and is expelled by contractions of the uterus. The first men¬ struation (menarche) occurs after other changes of puberty, usually at 11-13 years of age, apparently triggered by the passing of a weight thresh¬ old. Bleeding may be irregular or heavy at first. In adult women, men¬ strual periods begin at an average interval of 28 days and last about five days; some variation among women and in the same woman is normal. Uterine contractions are felt as cramps. The amount of blood lost is usu¬ ally less than 1.7 oz (50 ml). Menstruation ends with menopause. Men¬ strual disorders include dysmenorrhea (painful menstruation) and amenorrhea (no bleeding), heavy or light bleeding, and uterine bleeding. See also PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME.