Moltke, Helmuth (Johannes Ludwig) von (b. May 25, 1848, Gersdorff, Mecklenburg—d. June 18, 1916, Berlin, Ger.) German soldier. A nephew of Helmuth von Moltke, he rose rapidly in the German army and served as adjutant to his uncle from 1882. He was appointed quartermas¬ ter general in 1903 and chief of the German general staff in 1906. At the outbreak of World War I, he applied the Schlieffen Plan, devised by his predecessor, but his inability to revise the plan to cope with tactical and command errors contributed to the halt of the German offensive in the Battle of the Marne (1914). He was relieved of his command shortly after and died a broken man two years later.
Moltke Vmolt-kaX, Helmuth (Karl Bernhard), count von (b.
Oct. 26, 1800, Parchim, Mecklenburg—d. April 24, 1891, Berlin, Ger.) Prussian general. He joined the Prussian army in 1822 and was appointed to its general staff in 1832. After a stint as adviser to the Turkish army (1835-39), he traveled widely and wrote several books on history and travel. In 1855 he served as personal aide to the Prussian prince Freder¬ ick William (later Frederick III), then was selected as chief of the Prus¬ sian general staff (1857-88). Highly intelligent and militarily creative, he reorganized the Prussian army and devised new strategic and tactical command methods for modern mass armies. He directed the strategies that produced victories in the Prussian and German wars against Den¬ mark (1864), against Austria in the Seven Weeks' War (1866), and against France in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). He was created count in 1870 and field marshal in 1871.
Moluccas \mo-'l3-k9z\ Indonesian Maluku \ma-'lu-ku\ Island group (pop., 1999 est.: 2,223,000), eastern Indonesia, lying between Sulawesi and New Guinea. The Moluccas comprise three large islands (Halmahera, Ceram, and Buru) and many smaller ones. Their combined area is about 30,066 sq mi (77,871 sq km). They constitute the Indonesian provinces of Maluku and North Maluku; the provincial capitals are, respectively, Ambon and Ternate. The population is ethnically diverse, including Malays and Papuans and people of Dutch, Portuguese, and Javanese descent. Known as the “Spice Islands,” the Moluccas were part of the Asian spice trade before being discovered by the Portuguese in 1511, and they were fought over by the Spanish, English, and Dutch, eventually coming under the Dutch. Occupied by the Japanese during World War II, the islands were afterward incorporated into the state of East Indonesia and then into the Republic of Indonesia in 1949.
molybdenum Xmo-'lib-da-nanA Metallic chemical element, one of the transition elements, chemical symbol Mo, atomic number 42. It is a silvery gray, relatively rare metal with a high melting point (4,730 °F [2,610 °C]) that does not occur uncombined in nature. Since molybdenum and its alloys have useful strength at temperatures that melt most other metals and alloys, they are used in high-temperature steels. Applications include reaction ves¬ sels; aircraft, missile, and automobile parts; and electrodes, heating ele¬ ments, and filament supports. Some molybdenum compounds (in which it has various valences) are used as pigments and catalysts. Molybdenum dis¬ ulfide is a solid lubricant, used alone or added to greases and oils.
Mombasa \mom-'ba-s3\ City (pop., 1989: 461,753), Kenya, located on the island of Mombasa off the southern coast of Kenya. The island has an area of 5.5 sq mi (14.25 sq km) and is linked to the mainland by cause¬ way, bridge, and ferry; the city includes a mainland area of 100 sq mi (259 sq km). Founded by Arab traders in the 11th century, it was visited in 1498 by the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama. With its strategic position for the Indian Ocean trade, it was continually fought over, pass¬ ing among the Arabs, Persians, Portuguese, and Turks until 1840, when Zanzibar gained control. It came under British administration in 1895 and was the capital of the East Africa Protectorate until 1907. It is Kenya’s chief port and second largest city; it is also a major agricultural market.
moment See torque
momentum Product of the mass of a particle and its velocity. Newton's second law of motion states that the rate of change of momentum is pro¬ portional to the force acting on the particle. Albert Einstein showed that the mass of a particle increases as its velocity approaches the speed of light.
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© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
1280 I Mommsen ► monasticism
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At the speeds treated in classical mechanics, the effect of speed on the mass can be neglected, and changes in momentum are the result of changes in velocity alone. If a constant force acts on a particle for a given time, the product of the force and the time interval, the impulse, is equal to the change in momentum. For any array of several objects, the total momen¬ tum is the sum of the individual momenta. See also angular momentum.
Mommsen Vmom-zonX, (Christian Matthias) Theodor (b. Nov. 30, 1817, Garding, Schleswig—d. Nov. 1, 1903, Charlottenburg, near Berlin, German Empire) German historian and writer. After studying law, he did research in Italy and became a master of epigraphy, the study and interpretation of inscriptions. In 1848 he became a professor of law at Leipzig, but he was soon dismissed for his participation in liberal politi¬ cal activities; he later held teaching posts elsewhere. He remained politi¬ cally minded all his life. He is most famous for his History of Rome, 4 vol. (1854-56, 1885), considered his masterpiece. He edited the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (from 1863), a comprehensive collection of Latin inscriptions that greatly advanced understanding of life in the ancient world. His Roman Constitutional Law, 3 vol. (1871-88), repre¬ sented the first codification of Roman law. His lifetime scholarly output was immense, his publications numbering almost 1,000. He received the 1902 Nobel Prize for Literature.
Mon Vmon\ Any member of a people thought to have originated in west¬ ern China and currently living in the eastern delta region of Myanmar (Burma) and in west-central Thailand. They have lived in their present area for the last 1,200 years and brought Myanmar its writing (Pali) and its religion (Buddhism). Rice and teak are their most important agricul¬ tural products. Today they number more than 1.1 million. See also Dvara- vati; Mon kingdom.
Mon-Khmer Vmon-ka-'merX languages Family of about 130 Aus- troasiatic languages, spoken by more than 80 million people in South and Southeast Asia. Vietnamese has far more speakers than all other Austroa- siatic languages combined. Other languages with many speakers are Muong, with about a million speakers in northern Vietnam; Khmer; Kuay (Kuy), with perhaps 800,000 speakers; and Mon, spoken by more than 800,000 people in southern Myanmar and parts of Thailand. Of all the Mon-Khmer languages, only Mon, Khmer, and Vietnamese have written traditions dating earlier than the 19th century. Old Mon, which is attested from the 7th century, was written in a script of South Asian origin that was later adapted by the Burmese (see Mon kingdom; Indic writing sys¬ tems). Typical phonetic features of Mon-Khmer languages are a large vowel inventory and lack of tone distinctions.
Mon kingdom Kingdom of the Mon people, who were powerful in Myanmar (Burma) in the 9th— 11th centuries, in the 13th—16th centuries, and briefly in the mid-18th century. By 825 they had founded their capi¬ tal city, Thaton, and the city of Pegu. The Mon kingdom was defeated by the Burman kingdom of Pagan. When Pagan fell to the Mongols (1287), the Mon regained their independence and their former territory. They were defeated again in 1539. They reestablished Pegu briefly in the 18th cen¬ tury, but it was destroyed by Alaungpaya (see Alaungpaya dynasty) in 1757. See also Dvaravati.
Monaco Vma-no-.koV officially Principality of Monaco Indepen¬ dent principality, southern Europe, on the Mediterranean Sea near the France-Italy border. Area: 0.75 sq mi (1.95 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 32,700. Nearly half of Monaco’s population are French citizens; minori¬ ties include Italians and Britons; less than one-fifth of the population are of Monegasque descent. Language: French (official). Religions: Chris¬ tianity (predominantly Roman Catholic [official]); also Judaism. Cur¬ rency: euro. Inhabited since prehistoric times, the area was known to the Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans. In 1191 the Genoese took possession of it. In 1297 the reign of the Grimaldi family began. The Grimaldis allied themselves with France except for the period from 1524 to 1641, when they were under the protection of Spain. France annexed Monaco in 1793, and it remained under French control until the fall of Napoleon, when the Grimaldis returned. In 1815 it was put under the pro¬ tection of Sardinia. A treaty in 1861 called for the sale of the towns of Menton and Roquebrune to France and the establishment of Monaco’s independence. Monaco, situated along the Cote d'Azur, is one of Europe’s most luxurious resorts, known for its Monte-Carlo gambling centre, inter¬ national sports-car races, and beaches. In 1997 the 700-year rule of the Grimaldis, then under Prince Rainier, was celebrated. See map above.