Monaco, Lorenzo See Lorenzo Monaco
sands of monarchs gather in autumn, migrate southward, sometimes more than 1,800 mi (2,900 km), and return north in spring. The distinctive col¬ oration of the adult’s wings (reddish brown, with black veins, a black border, and two rows of spots) warns predators of its bad taste. Several other species derive protection by mimicking its coloration.
monarchy Undivided sovereignty or rule by a single person, who is the permanent head of state. The term is now used to refer to countries with hereditary sovereigns. The monarch was the ideal head of the new nation¬ states of the 16th and 17th centuries; his powers were nearly unlimited (see absolutism), though in Britain Parliament was able to restrict the sov¬ ereign’s freedom of action, particularly through the Magna Carta (1215) and the Bill of Rights (1689). The old idea that the monarch represented (within the limits of his dominions) the rule of God over all things cul¬ minated in the 17th century in the doctrine of the divine right of kings (see divine kingship), exemplified by Louis XIV. Monarchical absolutism adapted to the Enlightenment by evolving into “benevolent despotism,” as typified by the rule of Catherine II of Russia. The French Revolution dealt absolute monarchy a crushing blow, and World War I effectively destroyed what remained of it, the rulers of Russia, Germany, and Austria-Hungary being held responsible for the war and postwar misery. The institution developed into the constitutional monarchy in western Europe, though absolute (or near-absolute) monarchies continue to exist in the Middle East.
monarchy, constitutional See constitutional monarchy
monastery Local community or residence of a religious order, particu¬ larly an order of monks. Christian monasteries originally developed in Egypt, where the monks first lived as isolated hermits and then began to coalesce in communal groups. Monasteries were later found throughout the Christian world and often included a central space for church, chap¬ els, fountain, and dining hall. In the Middle Ages they served as centres of worship and learning and often played an important role for various European rulers. The vihara was an early type of Buddhist monastery, consisting of an open court surrounded by open cells accessible through an entrance porch. Originally built in India to shelter monks during the rainy season, viharas took on a sacred character when small stupas and images of the Buddha were installed in the central court. In western India, viharas were often excavated into rock cliffs. See also abbey.
monasticism Institutionalized religious movement whose members are bound by vows to an ascetic life of prayer, meditation, or good works. Members of monastic orders (monks) are usually celibate, and they live apart from society either in a community of monks or nuns or as religious
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Monck ► monetary policy I 1281
recluses. The earliest Christian monastic communities were founded in the deserts of Egypt, most notably by the hermit St. Anthony of Egypt (251-356). It was given its more familiar cenobitic form by St. Pacho- mius (c. 290-346). St. Basil the Great composed a very influential rule for the eastern church, and John Cassian (360-465) helped spread monasti- cism to western Europe. The Benedictine order, founded by St. Benedict of Nursia in the 6th century, called for moderation of ascetic practices and established worship services at regular hours. Throughout the Middle Ages, monasticism played a vital role not only in spreading Christianity but also in preserving and adding to literature and learning. It underwent periodic reforms, notably by the Cluniacs in the 10th century and the Cis¬ tercians in the 12th century, and saw the founding of mendicant orders such as the Dominicans and Franciscans. Monasticism has also been important in Eastern religions. In early Hindu times (c. 600-200 bc) there were hermits who lived in groups (ashrams), though they did not lead a strictly organized communal life. Jainism may be the first religion to have had an organized monastic life, which was characterized by extreme asceticism. Buddhist monks observe a moderate rule that avoids extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
Monck YmaqkV George, 1st duke of Albermarle (b. Dec. 6, 1608, Great Potheridge, Devon, Eng.—d. Jan. 3, 1670, London) English general. He served with the Dutch army against the Spanish in the Neth¬ erlands (1629-38) and later suppressed a rebellion in Ireland (1642^43). He fought in Ireland and Scotland in the English Civil Wars, then served in Scotland as commander (1650) and governor (1654). Appointed a gen¬ eral at sea (1652) in the Anglo-Dutch Wars, he played a leading part in the English naval victories. In 1660 he was the chief architect of the Res¬ toration of the Stuart monarchy, for which he was created duke of Albe¬ marle.
Mond, Ludwig (b. March 7, 1839, Kassel, Hesse-Kassel—d. Dec. 11, 1909, London, Eng.) German-British chemist and industrialist. After immigrating to England in 1862, he improved the Solvay process for making sodium carbonate (soda ash) and developed a process for extract¬ ing nickel from its ores. He was a founder of the important chemical firm Brunner, Mond and Co. and of the Mond Nickel Co.
Mondale, Walter F(rederick) (b. Jan. 5, 1928, Ceylon, Minn., U.S.) U.S. politician. He was active in Minnesota’s Farmer-Labor Party and worked for Hubert H. Humphrey’s U.S. Senate campaign in 1948. After graduating from the University of Minnesota law school in 1956, he was Minnesota’s attorney general from 1960 to his appointment in 1964 to fill Humphrey’s unexpired Senate term when Humphrey won election as vice president under Lyndon B. Johnson. He won election to the Senate in 1966 and reelection in 1972. In 1976 he was elected vice president under Jimmy Carter. In 1984 he won the Democratic presidential nomination but lost the election to Ronald Reagan. He resumed his law practice and later served as ambassador to Japan (1993-96). In 2002 he campaigned for a seat in the U.S. Senate after Paul Wellstone, a Minnesota senator, died in a plane crash days before the election; Mondale was narrowly defeated.
Monde Vmo n d\, Le French "The World" Daily newspaper published in Paris, one of the most important and widely respected newspapers in the world. It was established in 1944, just after the German army left the city, as an independent organ free of government or private subsidies. Covering national and world news in depth from the start, it soon earned a reputation for accuracy and independence. Its writers present their own views, with the result that the paper reveals no consistent ideological out¬ look, causing it to earn both praise and criticism from every part of the French political spectrum.
Mondino de' Luzzi Vmon-'de-no-da-'lut-seV Latin Mundinus (b. c. 1270, Bologna, Italy—d. c. 1326, Bologna) Italian physician and anato¬ mist. Mondino reintroduced the systematic teaching of anatomy, aban¬ doned for many centuries, into the medical curriculum and did dissections at public lectures. His Anathomia Mundini (1316, printed 1478) was the standard handbook for dissectors until the time of Andreas Vesalius. Though it followed Galen’s teachings slavishly, with sometimes inaccu¬ rate descriptions of internal organs, it inaugurated a new era in the dis¬ semination of anatomical knowledge.