refuge in the Netherlands (1684). Returning after Charles’s death to challenge James II, he and his army of peasants were defeated, and he was captured and beheaded.
Duke of Monmouth, oil painting after W. Wissing, c. 1683; in the National Portrait Gallery, London
COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY, LONDON
Monnet \m6-'na\, Jean (b. Nov. 9, 1888, Cognac, France—d. March 16, 1979, Houjarray) French economist and diplomat. He managed his family’s brandy business before becoming a partner of an investment bank (1925). In World War II he chaired a Franco-British economic commit¬ tee and proposed a Franco-British union. In 1947 he created and directed the successful Monnet Plan to rebuild and modernize France’s economy. In 1950, with Robert Schuman, he proposed the plan for the European Coal and Steel Community, predecessor of the European Economic Community and the European Union, and served as its first president (1952-55). He was also the founder and president of the action committee for the United States of Europe (1955-75).
monocot See cotyledon, flowering plant
Monod \mo-'no\, Jacques (Lucien) (b. Feb. 9, 1910, Paris, France—d. May 31, 1976, Cannes) French biochemist. In 1961 he and Francois Jacob proposed the existence of messenger RNA (mRNA), theo¬ rizing that the messenger carries the information encoded in the base sequence to the ribosomes, where the sequence of bases of the messenger RNA is translated into the sequence of amino acids of a protein. In advanc¬ ing the concept of gene complexes that they called operons, they suggested the existence of a class of genes that regulate the function of other genes by regulating the synthesis of mRNA. The two shared a 1965 Nobel Prize with Andre Lwoff (1902-94).
monody \'ma-no-de\ Accompanied solo song style of the early 17th century. It represented a reaction against the contrapuntal style (based on the combination of simultaneous melodic lines) of the 16th-century mad¬ rigal and motet. Ostensibly in an attempt to emulate ancient Greek music, composers placed renewed emphasis on proper articulation as well as expressive interpretation of texts, and they thus replaced counterpoint with
simply accompanied recitative. This resulted in a decisive distinction between melody and accompaniment, which coincides with the early appearance of basso continuo. A collection of songs published by Giuuo Caccini in 1602 exemplifies early monody. See also opera; recitative.
monogram Originally a cipher consisting of a single letter, later a design or mark consisting of two or more letters intertwined. The letters thus interlaced may be either all the letters of a name or the initial letters of the given names and surname of a person for use on notepaper, seals, or elsewhere. Many early Greek and Roman coins bear the monograms of rulers or towns. Most famous is the sacred monogram, which is formed by the conjunction of the first two Greek letters of XPIETOE (Christ), usually with the a (alpha) and co (omega) of the Apocalypse on each side of it. The Middle Ages were extremely prolific in inventing ciphers for ecclesiastical, artistic, and commercial use. Related devices are the colo¬ phons used for identification by publishers and printers, the hallmarks of goldsmiths and silversmiths, and the logos adopted by corporations.
monomer Vma-no-marX Molecule of any of a class of mostly organic compounds that can react with other molecules of the same or other com¬ pounds to form very large molecules (polymers). The essential feature of monomer molecules is the ability to form chemical bonds (see bonding) with at least two other monomer molecules (polyfunctionality). Those able to react with two others can form only chainlike polymers; those able to react with three or more can form cross-linked, network polymers. Examples of monomers (and their polymers) are styrene (polystyrene), ETHYLENE (POLYETHYLENE), and AMINO ACIDS (PROTEINS).
Monongahela \m9-,nan-g9- , he-b\ River River, northern West Vir¬ ginia, U.S. It flows north past Morgantown into Pennsylvania and joins the Allegheny River at Pittsburgh to form the Ohio River, after a total course of 128 mi (206 km). In its upper reaches it is used for hydroelectric power. Made navigable by means of locks for 106 mi (170 km), it serves as a major barge route.
mononucleosis X.ma-no-.nii-kle-'o-sosV infectious or glandular fever Common infection, caused by Epstein-Barr virus. It occurs most often at ages 10-35. Infected young children usually have little or no ill¬ ness but become immune. Popularly called “the kissing disease,” it is spread mostly by oral contact with exchange of saliva. It usually lasts 7-14 days. The most common symptoms are malaise, sore throat, fever, and lymph-node enlargement. Liver involvement is usual but rarely severe. The spleen often enlarges and in rare cases ruptures fatally. Less frequent features include rash, pneumonia, encephalitis (sometimes fatal), meningitis, and peripheral neuritis. Relapse and second attacks are rare. Diagnosis may require blood analysis. There is no specific therapy.
monophony Xmo-'na-fo-neV Music consisting of a single unaccompa¬ nied melodic line. The concept often also includes melody that is accom¬ panied by a drone or by drumming. Gregorian chant and Byzantine chant constitute the oldest written examples of monophonic repertory.
Monophysite heresy \m3-'na-f9- l sit\ (5th-6th century ad) Doctrine that emphasized the single nature (the term means literally “of one nature”) of Christ, as a wholly divine being rather than part-divine and part-human. Monophysitism began to appear in the 5th century; though condemned as a heresy at the Council of Chalcedon (451), it was tolerated by such Byz¬ antine leaders as Justin II, Theodora, and Zeno, resulting in a full-fledged schism between East and West. Several Monophysite churches, including the Coptic Orthodox Church, were founded in the 6th century.
monopolistic competition Market situation in which many inde¬ pendent buyers and sellers may exist but competition is limited by spe¬ cific market conditions. The theory was developed almost simultaneously by Edward Hastings Chamberlin in his Theory of Monopolistic Compe¬ tition (1933) and Joan V. Robinson in her Economics of Imperfect Com¬ petition (1933). It assumes product differentiation, a situation in which each seller’s goods have some unique properties, thereby giving the seller some monopoly power. See also monopoly; oligopoly.
monopoly Exclusive possession of a market by a supplier of a prod¬ uct or service for which there is no substitute. In the absence of compe¬ tition, the supplier usually restricts output and increases price in order to maximize profits. The concept of pure monopoly is useful for theoretical discussion but is rarely encountered in actuality. In situations where hav¬ ing more than one supplier is inefficient (e.g., for electricity, gas, or water), economists refer to “natural monopoly” (see public utility). For monopoly to exist there must be a barrier to the entry of competing firms. In the case
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monoprint ► Monroe I 1285
of natural monopolies, the government creates that barrier. Either local government provides the service itself, or it awards a franchise to a pri¬ vate company and regulates it. In some cases the barrier is attributable to an effective patent. In other cases the barrier that eliminates competing firms is technological. Large-scale, integrated operations that increase efficiency and reduce production costs confer a benefit on firms that adopt them and may confer a benefit on consumers if the lower costs lead to lower product prices. In many cases the barrier is a result of anticompet¬ itive behaviour on the part of the firm. Most free-enterprise economies have adopted laws to protect consumers from the abuse of monopoly power. The U.S. antitrust laws are the oldest examples of this type of monopoly-control legislation; public-utility law is an outgrowth of the English common law as it pertains to natural monopolies. Antitrust law prohibits mergers and acquisitions that lessen competition. The question asked is whether consumers will benefit from increased efficiency or be penalized with a lower output and a higher price. See also oligopoly.