mudor suan Nmu-'dor-shu-'anX Ceremony in which the Votyaks or Udmurts (peoples of the Ural Mountains) consecrated a new family or
L_
M
N
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
1306 I mudra ► Muhammad
L_
N
clan shrine when the ancestral home was too small to accommodate all its members and a new site had to be blessed. The main ceremony con¬ sisted of taking ashes from the hearth of the ancestral shrine ( kuala ) and transferring them to the shrine at the new location, which was then con¬ sidered a subsidiary of the ancestral kuala.
mudra \mu-'dra\ In Buddhism and Hinduism, a symbolic gesture of the hands and fingers used in ceremonies, dance, sculpture, and painting. Hundreds of mudras are used in ceremony and dance, often in combina¬ tion with movements of the wrists, elbows, and shoulders. In ceremonies, especially in Buddhism, a mudra acts as a kind of seal, affirming a mys¬ tical or magical vow or utterance, such as a prayer to ward off evil. A mudra often accompanies the utterance of a mantra.
mufti \'muf-te\ Islamic legal authority charged with issuing an opinion (fatwa) in answer to an inquiry by a judge or a private individual. Such a judgment requires extensive knowledge of the Qur’an and the Hadith as well as of legal precedents. During the Ottoman Empire the mufti of Istanbul was Islam’s chief legal authority, presiding over the whole judi¬ cial and theological hierarchy. The development of modern legal codes in Islamic countries has significantly reduced the authority of mufti, and they now deal only with questions of personal status such as inheritance, mar¬ riage, and divorce.
Mugabe \mu-'ga-ba\, Robert (Gabriel) (b. Feb. 21, 1924, Kutama, Southern Rhodesia) First prime minister (1980-87) and executive presi¬ dent (from 1987) of Zimbabwe. With Joshua Nkomo, Mugabe led a Marxist-inspired guerrilla war that forced the white-dominated govern¬ ment of Ian Smith to accept universal elections, which Mugabe’s party, Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), easily won. He formed a coalition government with Nkomo’s Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU), but he removed Nkomo in 1982. In 1984 the two parties were merged as ZANU-Patriotic Front, as Mugabe moved to convert Zimba¬ bwe from a parliamentary democracy into a one-party socialist state. His rule was marked by violence and intimidation and by a decreasing toler¬ ance of political opposition.
Muggeridge, Malcolm (Thomas) (b. March 24, 1903, Croydon, Surrey, Eng.—d. Nov. 24, 1990, Hastings, East Sussex) British journalist and social critic. A lecturer in Cairo in the late 1920s, he worked for news¬ papers in the 1930s before serving in British intelligence during World War II. He then resumed his journalistic career, including a stint as editor of Punch (1953-57). An outspoken and controversial iconoclast, he targeted liberalism and other aspects of contemporary life with his stinging wit and elegant prose. He was early an avowed atheist but moved gradually to embrace Roman Catholicism at age 79. He wrote some 30 books, including satiric novels and religious accounts, and from the 1950s was a popular interviewer, panelist, and documentarian on British television.
Mughal Vmu-goB architecture Building style that flourished in India under the Mughal emperors from the mid 16th to the late 17th century. The Mughal period marked a striking revival of Islamic architecture in northern India, where Persian, Indian, and various provincial styles were fused to produce works of great refinement. White marble and red sand¬ stone were favoured materials. Most of the early Mughal buildings used arches only sparingly, relying on post-and-beam construction. The use of the double dome, a recessed archway inside a rectangular fronton (arena), and parklike surroundings are typical of the Shah Jahan period (1628— 58), when Mughal design reached its zenith. Symmetry and balance between the parts of a building were stressed, as was delicate ornamental detail. Important Mughal undertakings include the Taj Mahal and the palace-fortress at Delhi (begun 1638).
Mughal Vmu-goP dynasty or Mogul Vmo-goA dynasty Muslim dynasty that ruled most of northern India from the early 16th to the mid- 18th century. The dynasty’s rulers, descended from Timur and Genghis Khan, included unusually talented rulers over the course of seven genera¬ tions, and the dynasty was further distinguished by its emperors’ efforts to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian state. Prominent among the Mughal rulers were the founder, Babur (r. 1526-30); his grandson Akbar (r. 1556-1605); and Shah Jahan. Under Aurangzeb (r. 1658-1707) the empire reached its greatest extent, but his intolerance sowed the seeds for its decline. It broke up under pressure from factional rivalries, dynastic warfare, and the invasion of northern India in 1739 by Nadir Shah.
Mughal painting Style of painting, confined mainly to book illustra¬ tions and miniatures, that evolved in India during the Mughal dynasty
(16th-19th centuries). In the initial phases the technique often involved a team of artists: one determined the composition, a second did the actual colouring, and a specialist in portrai¬ ture worked on individual faces. Probably the earliest example of Mughal painting is the illustrated folktale Tuti-nameh (“Tales of a Par¬ rot”). Essentially a court art, it flour¬ ished under the emperors’ patronage and declined when they lost interest. See also Mughal architecture.
Mugwump Member of the reform faction of the early Republican Party.
In 1884 the Mugwumps refused to support the Republican presidential candidate, James Blaine, whom they considered politically corrupt, and campaigned instead for Democratic nominee Grover Cleveland, whom they saw as a reformer. The term, derived from an Indian word for “war leader,” had been used in politi-
cal slang to mean “kingpin” and was applied to the breakaway group by a New York newspaper. In U.S. political slang mugwump came to mean any independent voter; the term was later adopted in England.
Bird perched on rocks, Mughal paint¬ ing, c. ad 1610; in the State Museum, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India
Muhammad or Mohammed (b. c. 570, Mecca, Arabia—d. June 8, 632, Medina) Arab prophet who established the religion of Islam. The son of a merchant of the ruling tribe, he was orphaned at age six. He married a rich widow, Khadljah, with whom he had six children, including Fatimah, a daughter. According to tradition, in 610 he was visited by the angel Gabriel, who informed Muhammad that he was the messenger of God. His revelations and teachings, recorded in the Qur’an, are the basis of Islam. He began to preach publicly c. 613, urging the rich to give to the poor and calling for the destruction of idols. He gained disciples but also acquired enemies, whose plan to murder Muhammad forced him to flee Mecca for Medina in 622. This flight, known as the Hijrah, marks the beginning of the Islamic era. Muhammad’s followers defeated a Meccan force in 624; they suffered reverses in 625 but repelled a Meccan siege of Medina in 627. He won control of Mecca by 629 and of all Arabia by 630. He made his last journey to Mecca in 632, establishing the rites of the HAJJ, or pilgrimage to Mecca. He died later that year and was buried at Medina. His life, teachings, and miracles have been the subjects of Muslim devotion and reflection ever since.
Muhammad I Askia \mu-'ha-mad...as- , ke-3\ or Muhammad Ture \'tur-,a\ (d. March 2, 1538, Gao, Songhai empire) West African statesman and military leader. In 1493, after wresting power from Sonni 'All’s son Sonni Baru, Muhammad created an Islamic state whose civil code was the Qur’an and whose official writing was Arabic. He set up an exemplary administration and remained in power until overthrown by his son, Askia Musa, in 1528.
Muhammad V orig. STdT Muhammad ibn Yusuf (b. Aug. 10, 1909*, Fes, Mor.—d. Feb. 26, 1961, Rabat) Sultan (1927-57) and king (1957-61) of Morocco. On his father’s death, he was appointed sultan of French-ruled Morocco over his two brothers, largely because the French expected him to be more compliant. His nationalist feelings were subtly expressed throughout his rule. He protected Moroccan Jews from the Vichy occupation in World War II (1939-45). In 1953 the French exiled him for two years, but sustained nationalist pressure forced them to let him return. In 1956 he negotiated independence from France; the follow¬ ing year he took the title of king.