myositis V.ml-o-'sI-tosV Inflammation of muscle tissue, often from bacte¬ rial, viral, or parasitic infection but sometimes of unknown origin. Most types destroy muscle and surrounding tissue. Bacteria may directly infect muscle (usually after injury) or produce substances toxic to it. Some chronic diseases (e.g., tuberculosis, third-stage syphilis) can involve the muscles. Parasites (e.g., tapeworms, protozoans) in contaminated food enter the bloodstream from the intestines and lodge in muscle.
myotonia V.ml-o-'to-ne-oN Disorder causing difficulty relaxing con¬ tracted voluntary muscles. All or only a few may be affected. Myotonia seems to originate in the muscles (myopathy) rather than the nervous sys¬ tem. Certain toxins can cause it. A hereditary form, myotonia congenita (Thomsen disease), can affect eyelid and eye motion, swallowing, or talk¬ ing. Quick movements cause muscle stiffening. There is also a myotonic form of muscular dystrophy. Analgesics, anesthetics, and anticonvulsant drugs can alleviate the symptoms.
Myra Vml-roX Ancient city, Lycia, southern coast of Anatolia. Its loca¬ tion was near the modern city of Kale in southwestern Turkey. Ancient ruins dating from the 5th to 3rd centuries bc include an acropolis, a mag¬ nificent theatre, and several rock-cut tombs that resemble wooden houses and shrines. St. Paul is known to have visited Myra in the 1st century ad, and St. Nicholas was bishop of the city in the 4th century. It was the capi¬ tal of Byzantine Lycia until it fell to the ‘Abbasids in 808.
Myrdal \'mi£r- l dal,\ English Vmir-.dalV (Karl) Gunnar (b. Dec. 6, 1898, Gustafs, Dalarna, Swed.—d. May 17, 1987, Stockholm) Swedish economist and sociologist. He received his Ph.D. from Stockholm Univer¬ sity and taught there from 1933 until 1967. His early work emphasized pure theory, but he later focused on applied economics and social problems. He explored the social and economic problems of African Americans in the U.S. (1938-40) and in 1944 published the classic study An American Dilemma, in which he presented his theory that poverty breeds poverty. In regard to development economics, he argued that rich and poor countries, rather than converging economically, might well diverge, the poor coun¬ tries becoming poorer as the rich countries enjoyed economies of scale and the poor ones were forced to rely on primary products. In 1974 he shared the Nobel Prize with Friedrich von Hayek. His wife, Alva Myrdal (1902- 86), was a sociologist, diplomat, UN administrator, and antiwar activist; she shared the 1982 Nobel Peace Prize with Alfonso Garcia Robles.
Myron Vml-rsnV (b. c. 480 bc, Greece—d. 440 bc) Greek sculptor. An older contemporary of Phidias and Polyclitus, he was considered by the ancients one of the most versatile and innovative of all Attic sculptors.
He was the first Greek sculptor to combine a mastery of movement with a gift for harmonious composi¬ tion. Working almost exclusively in bronze, he is best known for his stud¬ ies of athletes in action, particularly the Discus Thrower, c. 450 bc.
myrtle Any of the evergreen shrubs in the genus Myrtus (family Myrta- ceae). Authorities differ widely over the number of species included; most occur in South America, while some are found in Australia and New Zealand. Common myrtle (M. com¬ munis) is native to the Mediterranean and the Middle East and is cultivated in southern England and the warmer portions of North America. Other plants known as myrtle include the MOUNTAIN LAUREL and PERIWINKLE. The
Discus Thrower, Roman marble copy of Greek bronze by Myron, c. 450 bc; in the National Roman Museum, Rome.
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family Myrtaceae, commonly called the myrtle family, includes the plants that produce the spices allspice and cloves, and the genus Eucalyptus. See also CRAPE MYRTLE.
Mysore \mI-'sor\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 742,261), southern Karna¬ taka state, southern India. Situated midway between the Kaveri and Kab- bani rivers, the site was inhabited before the 3rd century bc. The city was the capital of the princely state of Mysore (1799-1831), then it was occu¬ pied by the British. The state’s second largest city, it is an important industrial centre producing textiles, chemicals, and foodstuffs. Sites of interest include the 17th-century British residency, the maharaja’s palace, and the University of Mysore (founded 1916). Nearby Chamundi Hill has a monolith representing Nandi, the sacred bull of the Hindu deity Shiva.
Mysore See Karnataka
mystery play Vernacular drama of the Middle Ages. It developed from the liturgical drama and usually represented a biblical subject. In the 13th century, craft guilds began producing mystery plays at sites removed from the church, adding apocryphal and satirical elements to the dramas. In England groups of 25-50 plays were later organized into lengthy cycles, such as the Chester plays and the Wakefield plays. In England the plays were often performed on moveable pageant wagons, while in France and Italy they were acted on stages with scenery representing heaven, earth, and hell. Technical flourishes such as flying angels and fire-spouting dev¬ ils kept the spectators’ attention. The genre of the mystery play declined by 1600. See also miracle play; morality play.
mystery religion Any of various secret cults of the Greco-Roman world. Derived from primitive tribal ceremonies, mystery religions reached their peak of popularity in Greece in the first three centuries ad. Their members met secretly to share meals and take part in dances and ceremonies, especially initiation rites. The cult of Demeter produced the most famous of the mystery religions, the Eleusinian Mysteries, as well as the Andania mysteries. Dionysus was worshiped in festivals that included wine, choral singing, sexual activity, and mime. The Orphic cult, by con¬ trast, based on sacred writings attributed to Orpheus, required chastity and abstinence from meat and wine. Mystery cults also attached to Arris, Isis, and Jupiter Dolichenus, among others.
mystery story Work of fiction in which the evidence related to a crime or to a mysterious event is so presented that the reader has an opportu¬ nity to consider solutions to the problem, the author’s solution being the final phase of the piece. The mystery story is an age-old popular genre and is related to several other forms. Elements of mystery may be present in narratives of horror or terror, pseudoscientific fantasies, crime stories, accounts of diplomatic intrigue, affairs of codes and ciphers and secret societies, or any situation involving an enigma. See also detective story; GOTHIC NOVEL.
mysticism Spiritual quest for union with the divine. Forms of mysti¬ cism are found in all major religions. Hinduism, with its goal of absorp¬
tion of the soul in the All, is inherently predisposed to mystical experience. Buddhism emphasizes meditation as a means of moving toward nirvana. In Islam, Sufism employs metaphors of intoxication and of the love between bride and bridegroom to express the desire for union with the divine. In Judaism, the foundations of mysticism were laid in the visions of the bib¬ lical prophets and were later developed in the Kabbala and in Hasidism. Mysticism has appeared intermittently in Christianity, notably in the writ¬ ings of St. Augustine and St. Teresa of Avila, and in the works of Meister Eckhart and his 14th-century successors.
myth Traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the worldview of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon. Myths relate the events, conditions, and deeds of gods or superhuman beings that are outside ordinary human life and yet basic to it. These events are set in a time altogether different from his¬ torical time, often at the beginning of creation or at an early stage of pre¬ history. A culture’s myths are usually closely related to its religious beliefs and rituals. The modem study of myth arose with early 19th-century Romanticism. Wilhelm Mannhardt, James George Frazer, and others later employed a more comparative approach. Sigmund Freud viewed myth as an expression of repressed ideas, a view later expanded by Carl Gustav Jung in his theory of the “collective unconscious” and the mythical arche¬ types that arise out of it. Bronislaw Malinowski emphasized how myth ful¬ fills common social functions, providing a model or “charter” for human behaviour. Claude Levi-Strauss discerned underlying structures in the for¬ mal relations and patterns of myths throughout the world. Mircea Eliade and Rudolf Otto held that myth is to be understood solely as a religious phenomenon. Features of myth are shared by other kinds of literature. Origin tales explain the source or causes of various aspects of nature or human society and life. Fairy tales deal with extraordinary beings and events but lack the authority of myth. Sagas and epics claim authority and truth but reflect specific historical settings.