Ayrshire \'er-,shir\ Breed of hardy dairy cattle (see dairy farming) that originated in the county of Ayr, Scotland, in the late 18th century. It is considered the only special dairy breed to have originated in the British Isles. Its body colour varies from almost pure white to nearly all cherry red or brown. Exported widely to other countries, it is especially common in Great Britain, the U.S., and Canada.
Ayub Khan \a-'ub-'kan\, Mohammad (b. May 14, 1907, Hazara, India—d. April 19, 1974, near Islamabad, Pak.) President of Pakistan (1958-69). After studies at Aligarh Muslim University and at the British Royal Military College, he became an officer in the Indian army (1928). He fought in Burma (Myanmar) in World War II, and afterward he rose through the ranks in the military in newly independent Pakistan. In 1958 Pakistan’s Pres. Iskander Mirza abrogated the country’s constitution, and Ayub became chief martial-law administrator. He declared himself presi¬ dent the same year, exiling Mirza. He established close ties with China and in 1965 went to war with India over control of the Kashmir region. The failure to take Kashmir, combined with unrest over suffrage restric¬ tions, led to riots, and Ayub resigned in 1969.
Ayurveda Va-yor-.va-doV or Ayurvedic medicine Traditional sys¬ tem of Indian medicine. It is attributed to Dhanvantari, the physician to the gods in Hindu mythology, who received it from Brahma. Its earliest concepts were set out in the portion of the Vedas known as the Athar- vaveda (c. 2nd millennium bc). The most important Ayurvedic texts are the Caraka samhita and Susruta samhita (1st—4th century ad). These texts analyze the human body in terms of earth, water, fire, air, and ether as well as the three bodily humours (wind, bile, and phlegm). To prevent illness, Ayurvedic medicine emphasizes hygiene, exercise, herbal prepa¬ rations, and yoga. To cure ailments, it relies on herbal medicines, phys¬
iotherapy, and diet. Ayurvedic medicine is still a popular form of health care in India, where it is taught in roughly 100 colleges, and it has gained currency in the West as a form of alternative medicine.
Ayutthaya \,a-yu-'tI-9\ in full Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya. Town (pop., 2000 prelim.: 75,898), former capital city of the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya. It is located northeast of present-day Bangkok. Modern-day Thailand (then called Siam) is said to date from its founding (between 1347 and 1351). The kingdom of Ayutthaya was once one of the most powerful in Southeast Asia, and its capital city flourished for more than 400 years. Much of the ancient city’s architecture, art, and literature was destroyed in 1767 when it was sacked by Hsinbyushin of the Alaungpaya dynasty. The modern town of Ayutthaya is set among the ruins of the ancient city. There is some manufacturing, and tourism is important. The area was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1991.
Ayyubid \a-'yu-bid\ dynasty (1173-1250) Kurdish dynasty founded by Saladin that ruled over Egypt, most of Syria, upper Iraq, and Yemen. After overthrowing the Fajimid dynasty, Saladin defended Palestine during the Crusades and made Egypt the most powerful Muslim state in the world. After Saladin’s death the Ayyubid regime became decentralized. In 1250 a group of mamluks (military slaves) exploited a lapse in Ayyubid suc¬ cession to take over the government in Egypt and to found the MamlOk dynasty. Minor Ayyubid princes continued to rule in parts of the Syria for some years afterward.
azalea Any plant of certain species of the genus Rhododendron (heath family), formerly given the generic name Azalea. Though some gardeners consider azaleas distinct from rhododendrons, distinguishing characteris¬ tics of the two groups are not consistent enough to separate them into two genera. Azaleas typically are deciduous (see deciduous tree), with flowers that are funnel-shaped, somewhat two-lipped, and often fragrant. Culti¬ vated varieties have been bred from species native to the hilly regions of Asia and North America. Well-known North American kinds include the smooth, or sweet, azalea ( R. arborescensf, the flame azalea (R. calen- dulaceum ); and the pinxter flower (R. periclymenoides ).
Azall \a-za-'le\ Any member of the Bab! movement who remained faith¬ ful to the teachings of the Bab and his chosen successor, Mirza Yahya, known as Sobh-e Azal, after the movement split in 1863. For 13 years after the Bab’s execution, followers recognized Sobh-e Azal as their leader. Then Sobh-e Azal’s half-brother, Baha’ Ullah, privately declared himself to be the prophet whose coming the Bab had foretold. The Aza- lls rejected him, but most Babls followed him, establishing the BahaI faith in 1867. Now located almost exclusively in Iran, the Azalls probably number no more than a few thousand.
Azana \3-'than-yo\ (y Diaz), Manuel (b. Jan. 10, 1880, Alcala de Henares, Spain—<1. Nov. 4, 1940, Montauban, France) Spanish prime minister and president. As prime minister from 1931 to 1933, he attempted to fashion a moderately liberal government. Elected president in May 1936, he was able to accomplish little before the Spanish Civil War broke out in July. He lost control of policy and remained in office as only a fig¬ urehead until 1939, when he went into exile following the victory of the Nationalist forces of Francisco Franco.
Azande See Zande
Azerbaijan \,a-z9r-bl-'jan\ officially Republic of Azerbaijan
Country, Transcaucasia, western Asia. Area: 33,400 sq mi (86,600 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 8,381,000. Capitaclass="underline" Baku. Most residents are of Turkic origin, dating from the 11th century ad. Later migrations during the SeuOq period brought further groups, including some speaking Per¬ sian; Russians are a decreasing minority. Languages: Azerbaijanian (offi¬ cial), Russian. Religion: Islam (mostly Shl'ite). Currency: manat. Azerbaijan is characterized by a variety of landscapes. More than two- fifths of its territory is lowlands, while areas above 5,000 ft (1,500 m) occupy some one-tenth of the total area. The central part of the country is a plain through which flows the Kura River and its tributaries, includ¬ ing the Aras, whose upper course forms part of the boundary with Iran. The Caspian Sea serves Baku as a trade outlet. Agriculture, petroleum refining, and light manufacturing are economically important. Azerbaijan is a republic with one legislative body; its head of state and government is the president, assisted by the prime minister. Azerbaijan adjoins the Ira¬ nian region of the same name, and the origin of their respective inhabit¬ ants is the same. By the 9th century ad it had come under Turkish influence, and in ensuing centuries it was fought over by Arabs, Mongols,
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Turks, and Iranians. Russia acquired what is now independent Azerbaijan in the early 19th century. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Azerbaijan declared its indepen¬ dence; it was subdued by the Red Army in 1920 and was incorporated into the Soviet Union. It declared indepen¬ dence from the collapsing Soviet Union in 1991. Azerbaijan has two geo¬ graphic peculiarities. The exclave Naxgivan (Nakhichevan) is separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by Armenian territory. Nagorno-Karabakh, which lies within Azerbaijan and is administered by it, has a Christian Armenian majority. Azerbaijan and Armenia went to war over both ter¬ ritories in the 1990s, causing many deaths and great economic disruption. Though attempts at mediation were made, the political situation remained unresolved.
Azhar \'az-,har\ University, al- Chief school of Islamic and Arabic learning in the world, centred on the al-Azhar Mosque in the medieval quarter of Cairo. It was founded by the Fatimid dynasty in 970. The basic program has always focused on Islamic law, theology, and the Arabic lan¬ guage. Philosophy and medical studies were added during the Middle Ages but were eventually dropped from the curriculum. Philosophy was restored at the end of the 19th century, and social sciences were added at a branch campus in the early 1960s. Women were first admitted in 1962.