papacy \'pa-pa-se\ System of central government of the Roman Catho¬ lic church. Bishops led the early church, the bishop of Rome being accorded special respect by the end of the 1st century ad in part because of the belief that St. Peter was the first bishop of that city. St. Cyprian chal¬ lenged that position of honour in the 3rd century, and in the 4th-5th cen¬ tury the power of the see of Constantinople rose to challenge that of Rome; the rivalry would culminate in the Schism of 1054 between the Eastern and Western churches. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the papacy found protection under the wing of Charlemagne and his successors; in the 9th-10th century the German emperors controlled it. In 1059 Pope Nicholas II responded by vesting the right to name a new pope exclusively with the College of Cardinals. To establish the papacy’s supremacy in Christian society, Gregory VII excommunicated Henry IV of Germany for disobedience to papal commands and decreed that civil rulers could not invest churchmen with temporal power (see Investiture Controversy). In the next centuries, the papacy developed into one of the most important and influential institutions in Europe, and Urban II, Innocent HI. and Gre¬ gory IX were among the most significant popes of the period. The world¬ liness and corruption of the papal court that emerged at the same time and the “Babylonian Captivity” of the papacy at Avignon (see Avignon papacy) led to the Western Schism and eventually to the Reformation. The Council of Trent inaugurated the Counter-Reformation. In the 19th century the papacy lost its remaining temporal powers when the Papal States were incorporated into the new Kingdom of Italy. It maintained a conservative religious position, proclaiming infallibility in doctrinal matters and espousing the idea that the pope is the absolute ruler of the church. The Second Vatican Council gave the bishops, clergy, and laity more voice. See also Roman Catholicism.
Papago Vpa-p9-,go\ or Tohono O'odham North American Indian people linving mostly in a region straddling the U.S.-Mexico border. Their language belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language stock. They rejected the name Papago, from a Piman word papahvi-o-otam meaning “bean eat¬ ers,” in the 1980s; they call themselves Tohono O’odham, meaning “Desert People.” Closely related to the Pima, they probably descend from ancient Hohokam peoples. On their traditional territory, vast stretches of desert regions of Arizona, U.S., and northern Sonora, Mex., the Papago practiced food gathering and flash-flood farming. Because of the wide dispersal of their fields, their largest viable political unit was a group of temporarily related villages. They had less contact with whites than other Indian groups and have retained elements of their traditional culture. They number some 15,000.
Papal Curia See Roman Curia
papal infallibility In Roman Catholicism, the doctrine that the pope, acting as supreme teacher and under certain conditions, as when he speaks ex cathedra (“from the chair”), cannot err when he teaches in matters of faith or morals. It is based on the belief that the church, entrusted with the teaching mission of Jesus, will be guided by the Holy Spirit in remain¬ ing faithful to that teaching. The First Vatican Council (1869-70) stated the conditions under which a pope may be said to have spoken infallibly: he must intend to demand irrevocable assent from the entire church in some aspect of faith or morals. The doctrine remains a major obstacle to ecumenical endeavours and is the subject of controversy even among Roman Catholic theologians.
Papal Inquisition See Inquisition
Papal States Italian Stati Pontifici Vsta-te-pon-'te-fe-che\ Territo¬ ries of central Italy over which the pope had sovereignty from 756 to 1870. The extent of the territory and the degree of papal control varied over the centuries. As early as the 4th century, the popes had acquired consider¬ able property around Rome (called the Patrimony of St. Peter). From the 5th century, with the breakdown of Roman imperial authority in the West, the popes’ influence in central Italy increased as the people of the area relied on them for protection against the barbarian invasions. When the Lombards threatened to take over the whole peninsula in the 750s, Pope Stephen II (or III) appealed for aid to the Frankish ruler Pippin III (the Short). On intervening, Pippin “restored” the lands of central Italy to the Roman see, ignoring the claim of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire to sovereignty there. This Donation of Pippin (754) provided the basis for the papal claim to temporal power. More land was gained when the papacy acquired the duchy of Benevento in 1077, and Popes Innocent III and Julius II further expanded the papal domain. The rise of communes and rule by local families weakened papal authority in the towns, and by the 16th century the papal territory was one of a number of petty Italian states. They were an obstacle to Italian unity until 1870, when Rome was taken by Italian forces and became the capital of Italy. In 1929 the Lateran Treaty settled the pope’s relation to the Italian state and set up an independent city-state (see Vatican City).
Papandreou V.pa-pan-'dra-iA, Andreas (Georgios) (b. Feb. 5, 1919, Chios, Greece—d. June 23, 1996, Ekali, near Athens) Greek edu¬ cator and prime minister (1981-89, 1993-96). Son of Georgios Papan¬ dreou, he taught at the University of California, Berkeley (1955-63), then returned to Greece when his father became premier (1963) and was elected to the Greek parliament. After the military coup in 1967 he went into exile. He returned in 1974 to form the left-wing Panhellenic Social¬ ist Movement (Pasok). The party gained a majority in 1981, and Papan¬ dreou became premier. He promoted generous social-welfare programs, but his government was weakened by financial scandals and mounting budget deficits, and he resigned in 1989 but remained the leader of Pasok. He again became prime minister in 1993, but ill health forced him to retire in 1996.
Papandreou, Georgios (b. Feb. 13, 1888, Kalentzi, Greece—d. Nov. 1, 1968, Athens) Greek prime minister (1944, 1963, 1964-65). He began his political career as a liberal in 1915 and served as minister of education (1929-33). In 1935 he founded the Democratic Socialist Party, then went into exile. He briefly headed a coalition government in 1944, then held ministerial posts (1946-52). He merged his party with the Lib¬ eral Party and formed the Centre Union in 1961. As prime minister in 1964 he introduced far-reaching social reforms, but he was dismissed by the king in 1965. After the military coup in 1967, he was jailed briefly with his son, Andreas Papandreou.
papaw or pawpaw Vpa-,p6\ Deciduous tree or shrub (Asimina tri¬ loba) of the custard apple family, native to the eastern and midwestem U.S. It can grow to 40 ft (12 m) tall and has pointed, broadly oblong, droop¬ ing leaves up to 12 in. (30 cm) long. The purple flowers bloom with a foul odour before the leaves emerge in spring. The edible fruit looks like a stubby banana; its skin turns black as it ripens. Handling papaw fruits produces a skin reaction in allergic individuals. The name is also some¬ times applied to the papaya.
papaya \p9-'pI-3\ Large palmlike plant (Carica papaya; family Cari- caceae), cultivated throughout the tropics and warm subtropics, and its succulent juicy fruit. A popular breakfast fruit in many countries, it is also used in salads, pies, sherbets, juices, and confections. The juice of the unripe fruit contain an enzyme that is useful in various remedies for indi¬ gestion and in meat tenderizers.
Papeete \,pa-pa-'a-ta\ Seaport (pop., 1996: 25,353), capital of French Polynesia. It is located on the northwestern coast of Tahiti. A tropical city with tall palms and exotic flowers, it is one of the largest urban and com¬ mercial centres in the South Pacific. By 1829 its excellent harbour made it a place of trade and a port of call for whalers. In 1880 it was annexed by the French, and it became a commune in 1890. It is a major tourist base and a centre for Pacific Rim trade.