peine forte et dure Ypen-'fort-a-'dueA French "strong and hard punishment" Formerly in English law, punishment inflicted on those accused of a felony who refused to enter a plea. By a statute of 1275, the peine was usually to imprison and starve the prisoner until he submitted; in 1406 pressing by heavy weights was added to this. In one of the few instances of its use in the American colonies, during the Salem witch tri¬ als, 80-year-old Giles Corey, who had decided not to stand trial rather than forfeit his family’s goods, was pressed to death by interrogators. The practice was abolished in 1772.
Peipsi \'pap-se\, Lake Estonian Peipsi Jarv Lake, north-central Europe, forming the boundary between Estonia and Russia. Lake Peipsi is 60 mi (97 km) long and 31 mi (50 km) wide, and it is frozen for half of the year. In 1242 the Russians, under Alexander Nevsky, defeated the Teutonic Knights (see Teutonic Order) on the frozen lake in the “Battle on the Ice,” forcing the order to relinquish claims to Russian lands.
Peipus, Lake See Lake Peipsi
Peirce Vpors, 'pirs\, Charles Sanders (b. Sept. 10, 1839, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.—d. April 19, 1914, near Milford, Pa.) U.S. scientist, logi¬
cian, and philosopher. He was the son of the mathematician and astrono¬ mer Benjamin Peirce (1809-80). After attending Harvard University he spent 30 years with the U.S. Coast Guard Survey (1861-91). As a scien¬ tist, he is noted for his contributions to the theory of probability, the study of gravity, and the logic of scientific methodology. He eventually aban¬ doned the physical sciences to study logic, which in its widest sense he identified with semiotics. He lectured on logic at Johns Hopkins Univer¬ sity from 1879 to 1894, then spent the rest of his life writing in seclu¬ sion. He is regarded as the founder of pragmatism. Though he made eminent contributions to deductive logic, he was a student primarily of “the logic of science”—i.e., of induction and of “retroduction,” or “abduc¬ tion,” the forming and accepting on probation of a hypothesis in order to explain surprising facts. His lifelong ambition was to establish induction and abduction as permanent branches of logic.
Peisistratus \pi-'sis-tro-t9s\ or Pisistratus (d. 527 bc) Tyrant of Ath¬ ens (c. 560-559, 556-555, 546-527). Bom an aristocrat, he gained mili¬ tary honours early. He first became tyrant in 560 after claiming an attempt had been made on his life and appealing to the people to grant him a bodyguard, which he used to help seize the Acropolis. His reign was short-lived, but he gained power again briefly in 556, before being ousted by Lycurgus and Megacles. After several years in exile, he returned with an army in 546, took control, and remained in power until his death. A patron of the arts, he executed many public works and tried to help small farmers. His unification of Attica and improvement of Athens’s prosper¬ ity helped make the city preeminent in Greece.
Peking See Beijing Peking man See Zhoukoudian
Peking opera See jingxi
Peking University or Beijing University One of the oldest and most important institutions of higher education in China. It was founded as Capital College in 1898 and became a university in 1911. By 1920 it had become a centre for progressive thought. During the Sino-Japanese War (1937—45) it was temporarily relocated to Yunnan province. The first disturbances of the Cultural Revolution began at Beijing University in 1966; education there ceased between 1966 and 1970. The university has since reasserted its position as China’s foremost nontechnical university. It has more than three dozen colleges and academic departments and scores of research institutes.
Pekingese \,pe-k3-'nez\ Breed of long-haired toy dog developed in ancient China, where it was held sacred and was kept in Peking’s Imperial Palace. Looting English forces introduced the breed to the West in 1860. Known as the “lion dog” for its full mane but perhaps also for its courage, it stands 6-9 in.
(15-23 cm) and weighs up to 14 lbs (6.5 kg). It has hanging ears, a short, wrinkled muzzle, and a black mask across the face. The coat may be solid or variegated. Chinese royalty carried very small Pekingese, called “sleeve dogs,” in their sleeves.
Peko \'pa-ko\ In Estonian religion, an agricultural deity who aided the growth of grain, especially barley. Peko was represented by a wax image that was kept buried in the grain in the granary and brought out in early spring for a ritual of agricultural fertility. At the end of a ceremonial feast, leftovers were distributed among the poor, and the men competed in wres¬ tling or fence jumping to determine who had the right to keep Peko in his granary until the following year.
Pelagianism Npo-Ta-je-o-.ni-zomV Christian heresy of the 5th century that emphasized free will and the goodness of human nature. Pelagius (3547-after 418), a British monk who settled in Africa in 410, was eager to raise moral standards among Christians. Rejecting the arguments of those who attributed their sins to human weakness, he argued that God made humans free to choose between good and evil and that sin is an entirely voluntary act. His disciple Celestius denied the church’s doctrine of original sin and the necessity of infant baptism. Pelagius and Celestius were excommunicated in 418, but their views continued to find defend¬ ers until the Council of Ephesus condemned Pelagianism in 431.
Pekingese
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1466 I Pele ► pelvic inflammatory disease
Pele \'pa-,la\ orig. Edson Arantes do Nascimento (b. Oct. 23, 1940, Tres Cora^oes, Braz.) Brazil¬ ian football (soccer) player, in his time perhaps the most celebrated athlete in the world. He joined the Santos Football Club in 1956 and helped lead that team to a world club championship in 1962. He was part of three Brazilian national teams that won World Cup championships (1958, 1962, 1970). In 1969, during his 909th match, he scored his 1,000th goal. He combined kicking power and accuracy with a remark¬ able ability to anticipate other play¬ ers’ moves. In 1975 he joined the New York Cosmos of the North American Soccer League (NASL); he retired after leading the team to the league championship in 1977. He was the 1978 recipient of the International Peace Award, and in 1980 he was named Athlete of the Century.
Pelee \p9-'la\, Mount Active volcanic mountain, northern Martinique, West Indies. It is northwest of Fort-de-France and is 4,583 ft (1,397 m) high. A gently sloping cone, it supports luxuriant forests. A violent erup¬ tion in 1902 destroyed the port of Saint-Pierre, killing about 30,000 people. A minor eruption occurred in 1929.
Pelew See Palau
Pelham, Henry (b. 1696—d. March 6, 1754, London, Eng.) British prime minister (1743-54). He was elected to Parliament in 1717 and, as a supporter of Robert Walpole, became secretary for war (1724) and pay¬ master of the forces (1730). He succeeded Walpole as prime minister and chancellor of the Exchequer in 1743 and led a stable Whig ministry with parliamentary assistance from his brother, Thomas Pelham-Holles, duke of Newcastle. Pelham resisted attempts to prolong the War of the Austrian Succession and signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). After the war, he introduced financial reforms, including lower military expenditures, a reduced land tax, and a consolidation of the national debt.