phalarope Vfa-l3- l rop\ Any of three species (genus Phalaropus, fam¬ ily Scolopacidae) of slim-necked shorebirds, 6-10 in. (25-25 cm) long, with lobed toes and a straight, slender bill. In summer, their gray-and- white plumage has red markings. Females fight for nesting territory and court the males; males, smaller and duller, do all the nesting duties and lead the young south in autumn. Two species breed around the Arctic Circle and winter on tropical oceans, where they are known as sea snipe. Wilson’s phalarope (P. tricolor) breeds in western North America and migrates to the Argentine pampas.
Phan Boi Chau Vpan-'boi-'chauX or Phan Giai San Vpan-'gyl-'sanV orig. Phan Van San (b. 1867, Nghe An province, Viet.—d. Sept. 29, 1940, Hue) Vietnamese resistance figure. Son of a poor scholar, he
received a doctorate in 1900, by which time he was already a firm nation¬ alist. Opposed to French rule in Vietnam, he organized efforts to place the nationalist Prince Cuong De (1882-1951) on the throne. In 1905 he moved his resistance movement to Japan, where he met Sun Yat-sen and Phan Chau Trinh. His monarchist scheme failed, as did a plan to assassi¬ nate the governor-general of French Indochina, and Chau was imprisoned in 1914-17. Hundreds of Vietnamese protested when he was arrested again in 1925; subsequently released, he spent his remaining years in quiet retirement.
Phan Chau Trinh Vpan-'chii-'trinN (b. 1872, Tay Loc, Quang Nam province, Viet.—d. March 24, 1926, Saigon) Vietnamese nationalist leader and reformer. Trinh, who fought in the resistance movement against the French even as a boy, came to believe that modernization was a pre¬ requisite for developing an autonomous state, and he thus made modern¬ ization his primary goal. He urged replacing the civil service system with vocational schools and commercial firms, but his attempts to persuade the French to undertake major reforms failed, and he was twice imprisoned. He was mourned as a national hero after his death. See also Phan Boi Chau.
Phanerozoic \,fa-n3-r3-'zo-ik\ Eon Span of geologic time from c. 543 million years ago, the end of the Proterozoic Eon, to the present. The Phanerozoic, the eon of visible life, is divided into three major eras: the Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic. Although life originated in Precambrian time, it was in the Phanerozoic that many forms arose and evolved. The Earth gradually assumed its present configuration and physical features through such processes as plate tectonics, mountain building, and glacia¬ tion.
pharaoh \'fer-o\ Epithet applied to Egyptian kings from c. 1500 to 343 bc. The term later evolved into a generic term for all ancient Egyptian kings. Pharaohs were regarded as gods, retaining their divine status even after death. A pharaoh’s will was supreme, and he governed by royal decree, with the assistance of viziers. The common people nevertheless judged a pharaoh by his deeds; many were criticized, plotted against, and even deposed and killed. See also Akhenaton; Amenemhet I; Amenhotep II; Amenhotep III; Ramses II; Thutmose III; Tutankhamen.
Pharisee \'far-3-,se\ Member of a Jewish religious party in Palestine that emerged c. 160 bc in opposition to the Sadducees. The Pharisees held that the Jewish oral tradition was as valid as the Torah. They struggled to democratize the Jewish religion, arguing that the worship of God was not confined to the Temple of Jerusalem and fostering the synagogue as an institution of worship. Their belief that reason must be applied in the interpretation of the Torah and its application to contemporary problems is now basic to Jewish theology.
pharmaceutical industry Producers of pharmaceuticals, substances used in the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease and the modi¬ fication of organic functions. The earliest records of medicinal plants and minerals are those of the ancient Chinese, Hindu, and Mediterranean civi¬ lizations. Medicines were prepared first by physicians and later by apoth¬ ecary shops. The modern pharmaceutical industry began in the 19th century with the discovery of highly active medicinal compounds that could be manufactured most efficiently on a large scale. As these drugs replaced the herbal medicines of earlier times, the occurrence and sever¬ ity of such diseases as rheumatic fever, typhoid fever, pneumonia, polio¬ myelitis, syphilis, and tuberculosis were greatly reduced. Many drugs are extracted from plant substances; alkaloids such as quinine, cocaine, and morphine are among the best-known examples. Others are made from animal substances, such as the glandular extracts that are used to produce insulin. Pharmaceutical industry research has greatly aided medical progress, and many new drugs have been discovered and produced in industrial laboratories. Increasing health-care costs, government regula¬ tion, and research ethics are all issues of concern to the industry.
pharmacology V.far-mo-'kal-o-jeV Branch of medicine dealing with the actions of drugs in the body—both therapeutic and toxic effects—and development and testing of new drugs and new uses of existing ones. Though the first Western pharmacological treatise (a listing of herbal plants) was compiled in the 1st century ad, scientific pharmacology was possible only from the 18th century on, when drugs could be purified and standardized. Pharmacologists develop drugs from plant and animal sources and create synthetic versions of these, along with new drugs based on them or their chemical structure. They also test drugs, first in vitro (in the laboratory) for biochemical activity and then in vivo (on animals, human volunteers, and patients) for safety, effectiveness, side effects, and
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pharmacy ► phenylketonuria I 1485
interactions with other drugs and to find the best dose, timing, and route (mouth, injection, etc.). Drug products are constantly tested for potency and purity. See also drug poisoning; pharmacy; pharmaceutical industry.
pharmacy Science dealing with collection, preparation, and standard¬ ization of drugs. Pharmacists, who must earn a qualifying degree, prepare and dispense prescribed medications. They formerly mixed and measured drug products from raw materials according to doctors’ prescriptions, and they are still responsible for formulating, storing, and providing correct dosages of medicines, now usually produced by pharmaceutical compa¬ nies as premeasured tablets or capsules. They also advise patients on the use of both prescription and over-the-counter drugs. Laws regulating the pharmaceutical industry are based on the national pharmacopoeia, which outlines the purity and dosages of numerous medicinal products.
Pharsalus \far-'sa-bs\, Battle of (48 bc) Decisive engagement in the Roman civil war between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Caesar had recently been defeated by Pompey when the two met again in Greece. Though Pompey had twice as many men, Caesar used unorthodox tactics to over¬ whelm him. Pompey fled and about half his men surrendered; the rest were killed or took flight.
pharyngitis \,far-3n-'jl-bs\ Inflammation and infection (usually bacte¬ rial or viral) of the pharynx. Symptoms include pain (sore throat, worse on swallowing), redness, swollen lymph nodes, and fever. Throat culture may be the only way to distinguish infection with streptococcus bacteria (strep throat), which can cause rheumatic fever if not treated in time with antibiotics, from viral infections, which do not respond to antibiotics and require only symptom relief.
pharynx Vfar-iqksV Inside of the throat, from the oral and nasal cavi¬ ties (see mouth, nose) to the trachea and esophagus. It has three connected sections: the nasopharynx, at the back of the nasal cavity; the oropharynx, in the back of the oral cavity down to the epiglottis (a flap of tissue that closes off the larynx during swallowing); and the laryngopharynx, from the epiglottis to the esophagus. The oropharynx contains the palatine ton¬ sils. The eustachian tubes connect the middle ears to the pharynx, allow¬ ing air pressure on the eardrum to be equalized. Disorders include pharyngitis, tonsillitis, and cancer.