Polish language West Slavic language of Poland, spoken by more than 41 million people, including 2-3 million in North America and perhaps 1.5 million in the former Soviet Union. The earliest continuous text in Polish dates from the 14th century. The standard language, formulated in the 16th century, combines features of western and southeastern dialects. Polish is written in the Latin alphabet and utilizes both digraphs (combi¬ nations of letters) and diacritics to distinguish its fairly elaborate reper¬ tory of consonants. Stress is fixed on the next-to-last syllable.
Polish Succession, War of the (1733-38) European conflict waged ostensibly to determine the successor to Augustus II. Austria and Russia supported his son Augustus III, while most Poles, France, and Spain sup¬ ported Stanislav/ I. a former Polish king (1704-09) and father-in-law of France’s Louis XV. Stanislaw was elected king in 1733, but a Russian threat forced him to flee, and Augustus was elected in his place. France, with Sardinia and Spain, declared war on Austria (1733), seeking to reclaim territory in Italy held by Austria. An inconclusive campaign ended in the preliminary Peace of Vienna (1735), which redistributed the dis¬ puted Italian territory and recognized Augustus as king. A final treaty was signed in 1738.
Politburo \'pa-l9t-,byur-o\ Supreme policy-making body of the Com¬ munist Party of the Soviet Union, the model for the politburos in other countries. The first Politburo, created in 1917 to provide leadership dur¬ ing the Bolshevik uprising, was dissolved when the coup was accom¬ plished. The party congress of 1919 instructed the Central Committee to elect a new Politburo, which soon overshadowed the Central Committee in power. In 1952 it was replaced by a larger Presidium of the Central Committee; after Joseph Stalin’s death, stress was placed on “collective leadership” to correct for his abuses. The name Politburo was revived in 1966. Its members included the general secretary of the Communist Party, the minister of defense, the head of the KGB, and the heads of the most important republics or urban party branches. It was dissolved with the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Politian \po-Ti-shon\ orig. Angelo Poliziano or Angelo Ambrogini (b. July 14, 1454, Montepulciano, Tuscany—d. Sept. 28/29, 1494, Florence) Italian poet and humanist. He demonstrated his poetic abilities early and became a friend and protege of Lorenzo de’ Medici. One of the foremost classical scholars of the Renaissance, he produced between 1473 and 1478 Latin and Greek verses that are among the best examples of humanist poetry. He was also, with Lorenzo, a leader in the revaluation of literature in Italian. His vernacular works include Stanzas Begun for the Tournament of the Magnificent Giuliano de ’ Medici (1475— 78), a masterpiece in ottava rima, and the drama Orfeo (1480).
political action committee (PAC) In U.S. politics, an organization whose purpose is to raise and distribute campaign funds to candidates seeking political office. PACs rose to prominence after the Federal Elec¬ tion Campaign Act (1971) limited the amount of money any corporation, union, or private individual could give to a candidate. PACs were able to circumvent these limits by soliciting smaller contributions from a much
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political convention ► pollack I 1521
larger number of individuals. During the late 20th and early 21st centu¬ ries the vast amounts of money raised by PACs greatly increased the cost of running for office and led to efforts to reform this method of financing campaigns.
political convention or party conference In politics, a meeting of members of a political party at the local, state, or national level to select party leaders and candidates for office and to determine party policy. Dur¬ ing presidential election years in the U.S., the main parties hold conven¬ tions that serve to showcase their presidential and vice presidential candidates and to boost the morale of party members for the campaigns that follow. Conventions were instituted in the U.S. in the 1830s to replace the often exclusive and secretive caucus system; it was hoped that the conventions’ openness would make them less vulnerable to control by party bosses. Most candidates for political office at all levels in the U.S. are now nominated through primary elections, and the conventions merely ratify the candidates already selected by the voters. Political parties in other countries (e.g., Great Britain) often hold annual party conferences.
political economy Academic discipline that explores the relationship between individuals and society and between markets and the state, using methods drawn from economics, political science, and sociology. The term is derived from the Greek terms polis (city or state) and oikonomos (one who manages a household). Political economy is thus concerned with how countries are managed, taking into account both political and eco¬ nomic factors. The field today encompasses several areas of inquiry, including the politics of economic relations, domestic political and eco¬ nomic issues, the comparative study of political and economic systems, and the study of international political economy.
political machine In U.S. politics, a political organization that con¬ trols enough votes to maintain political and administrative control of its community. The rapid growth of cities in the 19th century created huge problems for city governments, which were often poorly organized and unable to provide services. Enterprising politicians were able to win sup¬ port by offering favours, including patronage jobs and housing, in exchange for votes. Though machines often helped to restructure city governments to the benefit of their constituents, they just as often resulted in poorer service (when jobs were doled out as political rewards), cor¬ ruption (when contracts or concessions were awarded in return for kick- backs), and aggravation of racial or ethnic hostilities (when the machine did not reflect the city’s diversity). Reforms, suburban flight, and a more mobile population with fewer ties to city neighbourhoods have weakened machine politics. Famous machines include those of William AAarcy Tweed (New York), James Michael Curley (Boston), Thomas Pendergast (Kansas City, Mo.), and Richard J. Daley (Chicago). See also civil service.
political party Group of persons organized to acquire and exercise political power. Formal political parties originated in their modern form in Europe and the U.S. in the 19th century. Whereas mass-based parties appeal for support to the whole electorate, cadre parties aim at attracting only an active elite; most parties have features of both types. All parties develop a political program that defines their ideology and sets out the agenda they would pursue should they win elective office or gain power through extraparliamentary means. Most countries have single-party, two- party, or multiparty systems (see party system). In the U.S., party candi¬ dates are usually selected through primary elections at the state level.
political philosophy Branch of philosophy that analyzes the state and related concepts such as political obligation, law, social justice, and con¬ stitution. The first major work of political philosophy in the Western tra¬ dition was Plato’s Republic. Aristotle’s Politics is a detailed empirical study of political institutions. The Roman tradition is best exemplified by Cicero and Polybius. St. Augustine’s City of God began the tradition of Christian political thinking, which was developed by Thomas Aquinas. Niccolo Machiavelli studied the nature and limits of political power. Tho¬ mas Hobbes’s Leviathan (1651) raised the problem of political obligation in its modem form. Hobbes was followed by Benedict de Spinoza, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau in the exposition of a social-contract theory. This was rejected by David Hume and also by G.W.F. Hegel, whose Philosophy of Right (1821) was fundamental for 19th-century political thought. Hegel’s defense of private property stimulated Karl Marx’s cri¬ tique of it. John Stuart Mill developed Jeremy Bentham’s utilitarian theory of law and political institutions, so as to reconcile them with individual liberty. In the 20th century John Dewey sought to counteract the dehu¬ manizing aspects of modem capitalist society through a freer form of