premier See prime minister
Preminger Vpre-min-joiA, Otto (Ludwig) (b. Dec. 5, 1906, Vienna, Austria—d. April 23, 1986, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Austrian-bom U.S. film director. While studying law in his native Vienna, he worked with Max Reinhardt’s theatre and soon became its director. In 1935 he went to the U.S. to direct Libel on Broadway. Invited to Hollywood, he made the suc¬ cessful thriller Laura (1944), which helped establish film noir. Forming his own production company, he defied Hollywood’s Production Code with a series of controversial films and brought about the relaxation of censorship regulations. His landmark films include The Moon Is Blue (1953); the all-African American Carmen Jones (1954); and The Man with the Golden Arm (1955), a tale of drug addiction. His later films include Anatomy of a Murder (1959), Exodus (1960), The Cardinal (1963), and Hurry Sundown (1967). He also worked as a character actor, most nota¬ bly in Billy Wilder’s Stalag 17 (1953).
Prendergast, Maurice (Brazil) (b. Oct. 10, 1859, St. John’s, Nfd., Can.—d. Feb. 1, 1924, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Canadian-born U.S. painter. He moved with his family to Boston in 1868. After study in Paris (1891- 94), he spent much of his career traveling and painting abroad. He was the first U.S. artist to fully absorb French Impressionism and Post- Impressionism. His lively street scenes feature floating geometric areas of brilliant decorative colour with a mosaiclike effect. He produced his most outstanding works in watercolour. In his later years he lived in New York City and exhibited with The Eight and in the 1913 Armory Show.
Prensa Ypren-sa\, La Spanish "The Press" Argentine daily newspa¬ per, widely regarded as the finest Spanish-language newspaper in the world. Founded in Buenos Aires in 1869, it soon broke with the tradi¬ tional emphasis on propaganda to stress professional, accurate news reporting and independence in editorial opinion. It displayed a concern for human welfare that persisted in the face of government harassment, notably in the 1940s under the regime of Juan Peron. In 1951 it was seized and became a Peronist propaganda organ; after Peron’s overthrow, it reap¬ peared as an independent daily in 1956.
Preobrajenska, Olga orig. Olga Yosifovna Preobrazhen¬ skaya (b. Feb. 2, 1871, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Dec. 27, 1962, Saint- Mande, Fr.) Russian ballerina and teacher. She joined the Mariinsky Ballet (see Mariinsky Theatre) in 1889 and earned the title of prima ballerina in 1900. Her lyrical creativity and love of improvisation were praised by audiences and critics. She also taught at the Imperial Theatre School (1901-02 and 1914-21, during which time the school was renamed the Petrograd State Ballet School). As an instructor, she helped to form the next generation of Russian dancers. In 1922 she emigrated from Russia and taught at her own ballet school in Paris (1923-60).
preparatory school School that prepares students for entrance to a higher school. In Europe, where secondary education has been selective, preparatory schools have been those that catered to pupils wishing to enter the academic secondary schools. In North America, where access to sec¬ ondary education has been less competitive, the term usually refers to pri¬ vate secondary schools that prepare students for college.
Preparedness Movement Pre-World War I campaign to increase U.S. military capabilities and convince the public of the need for U.S. involvement in a future European conflict. Leaders such as Theodore Roosevelt and Gen. Leonard Wood sought to persuade Pres. Woodrow Wilson to strengthen U.S. national defenses, and various organizations sponsored preparedness parades to build public awareness and support. The campaign resulted in passage of the National Defense Act (1916); the U.S. entered World War I the following year.
prerogative court \pri-‘ra-g9-tiv\ In English law, a court through which the powers, privileges, and immunities reserved to the sovereign
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1544 I Presbyterianism ► pressure gauge
were exercised. Such courts were originally formed during the period when the sovereign’s power was greater than the Parliament’s. The Star Chamber, the High Commission, and the Court of Chancery all achieved importance in the 16th century. By the 17th century they were being chal¬ lenged by the common law courts and competing political interests, and they were soon put out of business. See also Privy Council.
Presbyterianism Form of church government based on rule by elders, or presbyters. The presbyters who govern the church are grouped in a hierarchy of courts, the highest of which is the general assembly. They are elected by the members of the congregation for fixed terms, in a sys¬ tem intended to affirm the equality of all Christians. The term Presbyte¬ rianism also refers to a denomination, the Presbyterian Church. The modern Presbyterian churches trace their origins to the Calvinist churches of the British Isles; in continental Europe such congregations were known as Reformed churches. The Presbyterian Church is strongest in Scotland, where it was founded by John Knox in 1557, but it is also well established in England, Wales, and the U.S. See also Calvinism.
preschool education Childhood education during the period from infancy to age five or six. Institutions for preschool education vary widely around the world, as do their names (e.g., infant school, day care, mater¬ nal school, nursery school, creche, kindergarten). The first systematic theory of early childhood pedagogy was propounded by Friedrich Froebel, the founder of the kindergarten. Other influential theorists include Maria Montessori and Jean Piaget. Of major concern in preschool education is language development; teachers often conduct listening and language games. See also elementary education.
Prescott, Edward C. (b. Dec. 26, 1940, Glens Falls, N.Y., U.S.) U.S. economist. Prescott studied at Swarthmore College (B.A., 1962), Case Western Reserve University (M.S., 1963), and Carnegie Mellon Univer¬ sity (Ph.D., 1967), where he later taught and advised Finn E. Kydland on his doctorate. Working with Kydland, he demonstrated how a declared commitment to a low inflation rate by policy makers might create expec¬ tations of low inflation and unemployment rates. The two men also estab¬ lished the microeconomic foundation for business cycle analyses, demonstrating that technology changes or supply shocks, such as oil price hikes, could be reflected in investment and relative price movements and thereby create short-term fluctuations around the long-term economic growth path. In 2004 Prescott shared the Nobel Prize for Economics with Kydland.
Prescott, William H(ickling) (b. May 4, 1796, Salem, Mass., U.S.—d. Jan. 28, 1859, Boston, Mass.) U.S. historian. Bom to a prosper¬ ous family, Prescott graduated from Harvard University in 1814 but was prevented by poor health and eyesight from a career in law or business. His friends, including Washington Irving, led him to his life’s work: recounting the history of 16th-century Spain and its colonies. He is best known for his History of the Conquest of Mexico (1843) and History of the Conquest of Peru (1847), for which he made rigorous use of original sources, and which earned him a reputation as the first scientific U.S. his¬ torian.
prescription In property law, the effect of the lapse of time in creating and destroying rights. Acquisitive prescription allows an individual, after unequivocal possession for a specific period, to acquire an interest in real property, such as an easement, but not the property itself. See also adverse possession.