probation Conditional suspension of an offender’s sentence upon the promise of good behaviour and agreement to accept supervision and abide by specified requirements. It differs from parole in that the offender is not required to serve any of his sentence. Those convicted of serious offenses and those previously convicted of other offenses are usually not consid¬ ered for probation. Studies in several countries show that 70 to 80% of probationers successfully complete their probation; additional limited evi¬ dence suggests that recidivism may be less than 30%.
problem play or thesis play Type of drama that developed in the 19th century to deal with controversial social issues in a realistic manner, expose social ills, and stimulate thought and discussion. It is exemplified by the works of Henrik Ibsen, who exposed hypocrisy, greed, and hidden coiTuption of society in a number of masterly plays. His influence encour¬ aged others to use the form. George Bernard Shaw brought it to an intel¬ lectual peak with his plays and their long, witty prefaces. More recent examples include works of Sean O'Casey, Athol Fugard, Arthur Miller, and August Wilson.
problem solving Process involved in finding a solution to a problem. Many animals routinely solve problems of locomotion, food finding, and shelter through trial and error. Some higher animals, such as apes and cetaceans, have demonstrated more complex problem-solving abilities, including discrimination of abstract stimuli, rule learning, and application of language or languagelike operations. Humans use not only trial and error but also insight based on an understanding of principles, inductive and deductive reasoning (see deduction; induction; and logic), and diver¬ gent or creative thinking (see creativity). Problem-solving abilities and styles may vary considerably by individual.
proboscis monkey Xprs-'ba-sos, pro-'bas-kosV Species (Nasalis lar- vatus, family Cercopithecidae) of long-tailed arboreal Old World monkey of swampy mangrove forests on Borneo. Diurnal vegetarians, they live in groups of about 20. They are red-brown with pale underparts; the young
monkey has a blue face. The male’s nose is long and pendulous, the female’s is smaller, and the young’s is upturned. Males are 22-28 in. (56-72 cm) long, have a 26-29-in. (66-75-cm) tail, and weigh 26-53 lbs (12-24 kg); females are smaller and much lighter.
procedural law Law that prescribes the procedures and methods for enforcing rights and duties and for obtaining redress (e.g., in a suit). It is distinguished from substantive law (i.e., law that creates, defines, or regu¬ lates rights and duties). Procedural law is a set of established forms for conducting a trial and regulating the events that precede and follow it. It prescribes rules relative to jurisdiction, pleading and practice, jury selec¬ tion, evidence, appeal, execution of judgments, representation of counsel, costs, registration (e.g., of a stock offer), prosecution of crime, and con¬ veyancing (transference of deeds, leases, etc.), among other matters.
process philosophy 20th-century school of philosophy that empha¬ sizes the elements of becoming, change, and novelty in experienced real¬ ity and opposes the traditional Western philosophical stress on being, permanence, and uniformity. Reality, including both the natural world and the human sphere, is essentially historical in this view, emerging from (and bearing) a past and advancing into a novel future. Hence, it cannot be grasped by old static spatial concepts that ignore the temporal and novel aspects of the universe given in human experience. The foremost contributors to process philosophy have been Henri Bergson and Alfred North Whitehead.
Proclamation of 1763 Proclamation by Britain at the end of the French and Indian War that prohibited settlement by whites on Indian ter¬ ritory. It established a British-administered reservation from west of the Appalachians and south of Hudson Bay to the Floridas and ordered white settlers to withdraw. It formalized Indian land titles and forbade land pat¬ ents without a purchase from, or treaty agreement with, the title-holding tribe. After American colonists and pioneers objected, the proclamation was replaced by the Treaties of Fort Stanwix.
proconsul In the ancient Roman republic, a consul whose powers had been extended for a definite period beyond his regular one-year term. These extensions were necessitated by such events as long periods of war. The extension of a chief magistrate’s term was originally voted by the people, but the power was soon assumed by the Senate. Provincial gov¬ ernors were usually magistrates whose terms had been extended. Under the empire (after 27 bc), governors of senatorial provinces were called proconsuls.
Procopius \pr3-'ko-pe-3s\ (b. probably between 490 and 507, Caesarea, Palestine) Byzantine historian. He advised Belisarius on his first Persian campaign (527-531) and fought the Vandals in Africa until 536. He was in Sicily with Belisarius and fought the Goths in Italy until 540, and he described the plague in Constantinople in 542. His books Polemon (“Wars”), Peri Ktismaton (“Buildings”), and Anecdota (“Secret History”) are valuable sources for his period’s history.
Procter, William (Cooper) (b. Aug. 25, 1862, Glendale, near Cin¬ cinnati, Ohio, U.S.—d. May 2, 1934, Cincinnati) U.S. manufacturer. A grandson of the founder of Procter & Gamble Co., he started working at the company in 1883. He served as president from 1907 to 1930, during which time sales rose from $20 million to over $200 million. Under his leadership the company pioneered in labour relations: he introduced a profit-sharing plan for employees (1887), guaranteed them 48 weeks of work a year (1920), and introduced a disability pension plan, a life- insurance plan, and employee representation on the board of directors.
Procter & Gamble Co, Major U.S. manufacturer of soaps, cleansers, and other household products. It was formed in 1837 when William C. Procter, a British candlemaker, and James Gamble, an Irish soapmaker, merged their businesses in Cincinnati. The company supplied soap and candles to the Union Army in the Civil War and continued to prosper when the war was over. Among its products were Ivory soap (1879), Crisco shortening (1911), Tide, the first synthetic laundry detergent (1946), and Joy, the first liquid synthetic detergent (1949). In 1932 Procter & Gamble also sponsored the first radio soap opera. The company later began to make personal-care items such as toothpaste, shampoo, and deodorant; food products such as cake mixes and coffee; and miscellaneous products such as cellulose pulp and chemicals.
proctoscope \'prak-t9-,skop\ Lighted tube used to inspect the rectum and lower colon. It is 10 in. (25 cm) long, allowing the entire rectal lin¬ ing to be examined for evidence of disease. It is inserted into the anal
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canal and advanced as far as is comfortable for the patient. Modern fibre- optic proctoscopes allow more extensive observation with less discom¬ fort. Proctoscopy is standard in physical examinations of older persons. See also endoscopy.
Prodi, Romano (b. Aug. 9, 1939, Scandiano, Italy) Italian prime min¬ ister (1996-98) and president of the European Commission (1999-2004), one of the governing bodies of the European Union (EU). Prodi graduated from Catholic University in Milan in 1961 and did postdoctoral work at the London School of Economics. After serving as a professor of eco¬ nomics at the University of Bologna, he entered government as minister of industry in 1978. In 1996, after two productive stints as chairman of the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (1982-89 and 1993-94), he was narrowly elected prime minister as head of the centre-left Olive Tree coa¬ lition. During his 28 months in office, Prodi privatized telecommunica¬ tions and reformed the government’s employment and pension policies. Budget disputes with members of his own party led to his resignation in October 1998. During his five-year term as president of the European Commission, the EU expanded beyond its western European roots to include Malta, Cyprus, and eight eastern and central European members.