Prynne \'prin\, William (b. 1600, Swainswick, Somerset, Eng.—d. Oct. 24, 1669, London) English Puritan pamphleteer. Trained as a law¬ yer, he published Puritan tracts from 1627 and assailed Anglican ceremo¬ nialism. He attacked popular amusements, especially plays, in his book Histrio Mastix: The Players Scourge (1633). Archbishop William Laud had him imprisoned; after he wrote more pamphlets attacking Laud and other Anglicans, his ears were cut off. Released in 1640, Prynne brought about Laud’s conviction and execution (1645). Elected to Parliament in 1648, he was expelled for attacks on radical Puritans and later imprisoned for refusing to pay taxes (1650-53). Disaffected with Oliver Cromwell’s Com¬ monwealth, he became a supporter of Charles II.
Pryp'yat River See Pripet River
Prypyat s ' River See Pripet River
Przewalski's horse Npsho-'val-skez, .psr-zho-'val-skezX Last wild equine subspecies ( Equus caballus przewalskii) surviving into the 20th century. It is yellowish or light red (dun) and stands 12-14 hands (48-56 in., 122-142 cm) high. It has a dark mane and tail and usually a stripe on the back. The mane is short and erect with no forelock. It was discovered in western Mongolia in the 1870s. The horse disappeared in the wild in the 1960s, but the descen¬ dants of specimens that had earlier been taken to European zoos began to be reintroduced into the Mongo¬ lian steppe in the 1990s.
psalm Vsam\ Sacred song or poem. The term is most widely known from the book of Psalms in the Bible. Its 150 psalms, ranging in subject from songs of joyous faith and thanksgiving to songs of bitter protest and lam¬ entation, rank among the immortal poems of all time. They have had a profound influence on the liturgies of Judaism and Christianity. Their dat¬ ing and authorship are highly problematic, and the tradition of assigning them to King David is no longer accepted. In the original Hebrew text the book had no name. When the Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek (the Septuagint), it was titled Psalterion, referring to a stringed instrument that would accompany such songs.
Pseudo-Demetrius See False Dmitry
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (fl. c. 500) Probably a Syrian monk. Under the pseudonym Dionysius the Areopagite, he wrote a series of treatises that united Neoplatonic philosophy (see Neoplatonism), Chris¬ tian theology, and mystical experience. Their doctrinal content covers the Trinity, the angelic world, and the Incarnation and redemption and pro¬ vides an explanation of all that is. His treatise “On Divine Names” dis¬ cusses the nature and effects of contemplative prayer. The Dionysian corpus was absorbed into Greek and Eastern Christian theologies and also influenced mystics in the Western church. Thomas Aquinas was among those who wrote commentaries on the works.
pseudomonad N.sii-ds-'mo-.nadX Any of a large and varied group of rod-shaped, often curved bacteria. Many can move, propelled by one or more flagella. Some aquatic species are attached to surfaces by long strands or stalks. Most are found in soil or water; some cause diseases in plants, and a few cause serious diseases in humans and other mammals. One very common and widespread species. Pseudomonas aeruginosa, is a serious cause of disease in humans, causing antibiotic-resistant infec¬ tions in individuals with weakened resistance. Pseudomonads have been implicated in hospital-acquired infections of surgical wounds and severely burned tissue and in fatal infections of cancer patients treated with immu¬ nosuppressive drugs.
psilomelane V.sI-lo-'me-.lanX Barium and manganese hydrous oxide, BaMnMn 8 0 16 (OH) 4 , an important ore mineral of manganese. What was formerly called psilomelane is now known to be a mixture of several manganese oxides of which romanechite is a major constituent. Such manganese oxide mixtures may form large deposits and may occur in lake or swamp bedded deposits and clays; it has been found in Germany, France, Belgium, Scotland, Sweden, India, and the U.S. The name psi¬ lomelane (from the Greek words for “smooth” and “black”) refers to its typical black, smooth-surfaced, grape-bunch-shaped or stalactitic masses.
psoriasis Vso-'ri-o-sosX Chronic, recurrent skin disorder with reddish, slightly elevated patches or bumps covered with silvery-white scales. Spots may coalesce into large patches around a normal area. If the nails are involved, they may become pitted, thick, and separated from the nail bed. Skin injury, infection, stress, and certain drugs may trigger psoria¬ sis. Skin cells move at an accelerated rate from the dermis into the epi¬ dermis, where they slough off, causing inflammation. In some cases, patients also have arthritis. Psoriasis often becomes less severe in the summer and during pregnancy. There is no cure, but treatment with drugs and ultraviolet light may help.
Psyche Vsl-ke\ In Greek and Roman mythology, a beautiful princess who won Cupid’s love. Her beauty was such that worshipers began to turn away from Venus, and the envi¬ ous goddess commanded her son Cupid to make Psyche fall in love with the most despicable of men. But Cupid himself fell in love with Psyche and hid her in a remote place, where he visited her secretly under cover of darkness. One night she lit a lamp and discovered her lover’s identity. He left angrily, and Psyche wandered the earth searching for him and was captured by Venus. After Cupid rescued Psyche, Jupiter made her immortal and gave her in mar¬ riage to Cupid.
psychiatry Branch of medicine concerned with mental disorders.
Until the 18th century, mental health problems were considered forms of demonic possession; gradually they came to be seen as illnesses requir¬ ing treatment. In the 19th century, research into and classification and treatment of mental illnesses advanced. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory dominated the field for many years before it was challenged by behavioral and cognitive therapy and humanistic psychology in the mid- 20th century. Psychiatrists hold medical degrees and can prescribe drugs and other medical treatments in addition to conducting psychotherapy. The psychiatrist often works as a member of a mental health team that includes clinical psychologists and social workers.
psychoanalysis Method of treating mental disorders that emphasizes the probing of unconscious mental processes. It is based on the psycho¬ analytic theory devised by Sigmund Freud in Vienna in the late 19th and early 20th century. It calls for patients to engage in free association of ideas, speaking to therapists about anything that comes to mind. Dreams and slips of the tongue are examined as a key to the workings of the unconscious mind, and the “work” of therapy is to uncover the tensions existing between the instinctual drive of the id, the perceptions and actions
Psyche, depicted with wings, classical sculpture; in the Louvre, Paris
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1560 I psycholinguistics ► Ptah
of the ego, and the censorship imposed by the morality of the superego. Careful attention is paid to early childhood experiences (especially those with a sexual dimension), the memory of which may have been repressed because of guilt or trauma; recalling and analyzing these experiences is thought to help free patients from the anxiety and neuroses caused by repression as well as from more serious illnesses known as psychoses (see neurosis, psychosis). Some of Freud’s early associates, notably Carl Gustav Jung and Alfred Adler, rejected his theories on many points and devised alternative methods of analysis. Other important figures in psychoanaly¬ sis, including Erik Erikson, Karen Horney, and Erich Fromm, accepted the basic Freudian framework but contributed their own additions or modi¬ fications.
psycholinguistics Study of the mental processes involved in the com¬ prehension, production, and acquisition of language. Much psycholin¬ guists work has been devoted to the learning of language by children and on speech processing and comprehension by both children and adults. Traditional areas of research include language production, language com¬ prehension, language acquisition, language disorders, language and thought, and neurocognition. See also linguistics.