of Carthage, the enslavement of its people, and Roman hegemony in the western Mediterranean. The Carthaginian territory became the Roman province of Africa.
Punjab \,p9n-'jab\ State (pop., 2001 prelim.: 24,289,296), northwestern India. Bordered by Pakistan and the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, and Rajasthan, it occupies an area of 19,445 sq mi (50,362 sq km). The city of Chandigarh is the joint administrative capital of Punjab and Haryana. In the 18th century the Sikhs (see Sikhism) built a powerful kingdom in the Punjab, which came under British rule in 1849. In 1947 the area was split between the new nations of India and Pakistan, the smaller eastern portion going to India. It is the only Indian state with a majority of Sikhs. Hindus make up about one-third of the population, and there are smaller minorities of Christians, Jains, and Muslims. The economy is based on agriculture and small- and medium-scale industry.
Punjabi \,p9n-ja-be\ language or Panjabi language Indo-Aryan language of the Punjab in India and Pakistan. Punjabi has about 26 mil¬ lion speakers in India and more than 60 million in Pakistan—nearly half the population of the latter—but linguists have sometimes considered the dialects of southwestern, western, and northern Punjab province in Paki¬ stan a different language. Inhabitants of southern Punjab province have agitated for consideration of their speech, Siraiki (with more than 12 mil¬ lion speakers), as a distinct language, though Siraiki and Punjabi are mutually intelligible.
punk Aggressive form of rock music that coalesced into an international (though predominantly Anglo-American) movement in 1975-80. Origi¬ nating in the countercultural rock of artists such as the Velvet Under¬ ground and Iggy (Pop) and the Stooges, punk rock evolved in New York City in the mid-1970s with artists such as Patti Smith and the Ramones. It soon took root in London—where distinctly “punk” fashions, includ¬ ing spiked hair and ripped clothing, were popularized—with bands such as the Sex Pistols and the Clash, and later in California, with X, Black Flag, and the Dead Kennedys. It is often marked by a fast, aggressive beat, loud guitar with abrupt chord changes, and nihilistic lyrics. Variants include new wave (more pop-oriented and accessible) and hardcore (char¬ acterized by brief, harsh songs played at breakneck speed); the latter con¬ tinued to thrive through the 1990s.
Punnett Vp3n-9t\, Reginald Crundall (b. June 20, 1875, Tonbridge, Kent, Eng.—d. Jan. 3, 1967, Bilbrook, Somerset) British geneticist. Through contact with William Bateson he came to support the theories of Gregor Mendel, and in 1905 he published the first textbook on Mende- lian genetics. Using poultry and sweet peas, Punnett and Bateson discov¬ ered some of the fundamental processes of Mendelian genetics, including linkage, sex determination, sex linkage, and the first example of nonsexual chromosome linkage. Punnett demonstrated the value of using sex-linked plumage-colour factors to distinguish male from female chickens, mak¬ ing possible early identification of the less valuable males, a process now known as autosexing.
Punt \'punt\ In ancient Egyptian and Greek geography, the southern coast of the Red Sea and adjacent coasts of the Gulf of Aden, corresponding to modern coastal Ethiopia and Djibouti. Visited by Egyptian expeditions as early as 2200 bc, it was a place of ancient legend and fable and Egypt’s source for incense, ivory, and ostrich feathers. During the reign of Queen Hatshepsut, an expedition was sent to Punt, and the queen had the details of the journey recorded on the walls of the Deir el-Bahri temple near Thebes. Only in the late 4th century bc were the trade routes to Punt opened to the Greeks.
pupa \'pyii-p9\ Inactive, nonfeeding stage in the life of insects that undergo complete metamorphosis. In a protective covering (cocoon or chrysalis), the larva is transformed into an adult. During pupation, a pro¬ cess controlled by hormones, larval structures break down and adult struc¬ tures form; wings appeal - for the first time. The adult emerges either by splitting the pupal skin and chewing its way out or by secreting a fluid that softens the cocoon.
puppetry Art of creating and manipulating puppets in a theatrical show. Puppets are figures that are moved by human rather than mechanical aid. They may be controlled by one or several puppeteers, who are screened from the spectators. Varieties include glove (or hand) puppets, rod pup¬ pets, shadow puppets, and marionettes (or string puppets). Puppetry had its beginnings in tribal society and has been part of every civilization. By the 18th century it was so popular in Europe that permanent theatres were
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Purace National Park ► Purus River I 1567
built for the usually itinerant puppeteers. Companies presented favourite stories of the French Guignol, the Italian Arlecchino, the German Kasperle, and the English Punch and Judy. By the mid 20th century pup¬ petry had reached television with Jim Henson’s Muppets. See also bun- raku; Sergey Obraztsov.
Purace \,pu-ra-'sa\ National Park National park, southwestern Colombia. Established in 1961, its main feature is the active Purace Vol¬ cano, which is located just southeast of the city of Popayan and reaches an elevation of 15,603 ft (4,756 m). The park covers 320 sq mi (830 sq km) and is home to the spectacled bear and the pudu, a small deer that is about 12 inches (30 cm) tall.
Purana \pu-Ta-no\ In Hinduism, an encyclopaedic collection of myth, legend, and genealogy. A Purana traditionally treats five subjects: primary creation of the universe, secondary creation after periodic annihilation, genealogy of gods and saints, grand epochs, and histories of the royal dynasties. Written in narrative couplets, the Purana s date from c. 400 to c. 1000. The 18 principal surviving Puranas are grouped according to whether they exalt Vishnu, Shiva, or Brahma. Most popular is the Bhaga- vata Purana, which treats the early life of Krishna.
Purari River River, eastern central New Guinea. Rising in the central highlands of Papua New Guinea, it flows about 290 mi (470 km) to the Gulf of Papua of the Coral Sea. Its lower course divides into five main channels that lace through a well-settled swampy delta. It is navigable for about 120 mi (190 km). Although found and partially charted in 1887, the river system was not fully traced until the 1930s.
Purcell Vpor-soL, Henry (b. c. 1659, London, Eng.—d. Nov. 21, 1695, London) British composer. Little is known of his origins, but he was in the Chapel Royal choir from boyhood, and he probably studied with Pelham Humfrey (1647-74) and John Blow (1649-1708). His first known compo¬ sition was written at age eight. When his voice changed, he assisted in keeping the royal instruments in repair and tuning the Westminster Abbey organ. He became organist there in 1679 and at the Chapel Royal in 1682. He wrote music in a number of genres. His opera Dido and Aeneas (1689) is notable for achieving a high degree of dramatic intensity within a narrow framework. This he followed with the “semi-operas” King Arthur (1691), The Fairy Queen (1692), and The Indian Queen (1695). He also wrote much incidental music, some 250 songs, 12 fantasias for viol consort, and many anthems and services. He is regarded as the greatest English com¬ poser after William Byrd and before the 20th century.
purdah Seclusion of women from public observation by means of con¬ cealing clothing (including the veil) and walled enclosures as well as screens and curtains within the home. The custom seems to have origi¬ nated in Persia and was adopted by Muslims during the Arab conquest of what is now Iraq in the 7th century. The Muslim domination of northern India led to its adoption by the Hindu upper classes, but it was discarded by Hindus after the end of British rule in India. The custom of purdah still continues in many Islamic countries.
pure culture In microbiology, laboratory culture containing a single species of organism. A pure culture is usually derived from a mixed cul¬ ture (containing many species) by methods that separate the individual cells so that, when they multiply, each will form an individually distinct colony, which may then be used to establish new cultures with the assur¬ ance that only one type of organism will be present. Pure cultures may be more easily isolated if the growth medium of the original mixed cul¬ ture favours the growth of one organism to the exclusion of others.