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of lung cancer more than any other common factor except smoking. Radon is used in radiotherapy, radiography, and research.
Raeburn, Sir Henry (b. March 4, 1756, Stockbridge, Scot.—d. July 8, 1823, Edinburgh) Scottish portrait painter. Though apprenticed early to a goldsmith, he lacked formal training as a painter. He worked principally as a miniaturist and evolved a distinctive style of oil portraiture, painting directly on the canvas without preliminary drawings. His portraits are characterized by a vigorous handling of paint and vivid and experimen¬ tal lighting effects, usually from behind the sitters’ heads. He was elected president of the Edinburgh Society of Artists (1812) and Royal Academi¬ cian (1815), knighted in 1822, and appointed His Majesty’s Limner for Scotland (1822).
Raeder Vra-dor\, Erich (b. April 24, 1876, Wandsbek, Ger.—d. Nov. 6, 1960, Kiel, W.Ger.) German naval officer. After serving as chief of staff to an admiral in World War I, he himself rose to the rank of admiral. As naval commander in chief from 1928, he urged the construction of sub¬ marines (forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles) and fast cruisers. Appointed grand admiral in 1939, he supervised the invasion of Denmark and Nor¬ way in 1940. Differences with Adolf Hitler led to his dismissal from supreme command in 1943. He was sentenced to life in prison at the Nurnberg trials, but he was released because of ill health in 1955.
Raetia or Rhaetia Vre-she-o\ Ancient Roman province south of the Danube River. It comprised parts of present-day Austria, Switzerland, and Germany. Its native inhabitants were probably of mixed Illyrian and Celtic descent. Conquered by Rome in 15 bc, it became an important part of the empire for its position on the highways between Italy and the Danube and between Gaul and the Balkans. Because it was a frontier province, its boundaries shifted when German tribes encroached; in the 1st century ad, the northern boundary extended to the Neckar River, but in the 3rd cen¬ tury the western and northern boundaries were pulled back. By 450, Rome controlled only the alpine regions.
RAF See Royal Air Force
Raffles, Sir (Thomas) Stamford (b. July 6, 1781, at sea off Port Morant, Jam.—d. July 5, 1826, London, Eng.) Administrator in the Brit¬ ish East India Company and founder of Singapore. He joined the British East India Company at age 14, and his hard work won him an appoint¬ ment as assistant secretary to the government of Penang (in present-day Malaysia). There he undertook an intensive study of the Malayan peoples, and his knowledge allowed him to play a key role in 1811, when the Brit¬ ish defeated Dutch-French forces in Java. He subsequently became lieu¬ tenant governor there and inaugurated a mass of reforms aimed at transforming the Dutch colonial system and improving the condition of the native population. He was recalled by the company, which deemed his reforms too costly; though he was popular in London (he was knighted in 1816), his authority when he resumed his service in Southeast Asia was severely restricted. Undeterred, he founded the port city of Singapore in 1819 in order to to ensure British access to the China seas; in 1824 the Dutch relinquished all claims to Singapore. Raffles is credited with cre¬ ating Britain’s Far Eastern empire.
raga In the classical music of India and Pakistan, a melodic framework for improvisation based on a given set of notes (usually five to seven) and characteristic rhythmic patterns. A raga can be regarded as a vocabulary of melodic figures that tend, as a group, to emphasize certain tones of a scale, giving the raga a specific emotional character and implying the kind of music to be improvised. The emphasis on certain pitches effectively divides the scale into primary and secondary tones; the secondary tones serve to ornament the primary tones, thus reinforcing the emphasis. Each scale can have several different ragas, depending on which tones of the scale are made primary. Two additional factors contribute to the artistic potential of the raga: the division of tones between primary and second¬ ary is not always hard and fast; moreover, a tertiary level (ornaments of the ornaments) is often made available to the performer. The concept of raga, introduced sometime before the 9th century, became influential throughout South and East Asia. See also South Asian arts.
Ragae See Rhagae
Raglan (of Raglan), FitzRoy James Henry Somerset, T st Baron (b. Sept. 30, 1788, Badminton, Gloucestershire, Eng.—d. June 28, 1855, near Sevastopol, Crimea, Russia) English army officer. He served as aide and, later, military secretary to the duke of Wellington. Appointed commander in chief of British forces in the Crimean War
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Ragnarok ► Rainer I 1585
(1854), he gave an ambiguous order in the Battle of Balaklava that led to the disastrous charge of the Light Cavalry Brigade under the earl of Car¬ digan. Raglan became the scapegoat for the campaign’s lack of progress and the inadequate supplies to the troops in the winter of 1854-55. His name was applied to the raglan sleeve, probably designed to adapt his coat to the arm he had amputated after the Battle of Waterloo.
Ragnarok \'rag-n9-,roek, 'rag-no-.rakN In Scandinavian mythology, the end of the divine and human worlds. As described in the 10th-century Icelandic poem Voluspa and other sources, Ragnarok will be preceded by cruel winters and moral chaos. Giants and demons will attack the gods, who will face death like heroes. The sun will be darkened, the stars will vanish, and the earth will sink into the sea. Afterward the earth will rise again, the innocent Balder will return from the dead, and the hosts of the just will live in a hall roofed with gold. The title of Richard Wagner’s opera Gotterdammerung (The Twilight of the Gods ) is a German equiva¬ lent of Ragnarok.
ragtime U.S. popular music of the late 19th and early 20th centuries distinguished by its heavily syncopated rhythm. Ragtime found its char¬ acteristic expression in formally structured piano compositions, the accented left-hand beat opposed in the right hand by a fast, bouncing melody that gave the music its powerful forward impetus. (The term probably derives from “ragged time,” a description of syncopation.) Rag¬ time compositions typically featured three or four discrete 16-bar strains performed at a moderate tempo. The most celebrated ragtime composer was Scott Joplin. The rhythm and structure of ragtime were important influences on the development of jazz.
ragweed Any of about 15 species of weedy plants (see weed) that make up the genus Ambrosia in the composite family, most of which are native to North America. They have rough hairy stems, mostly lobed or divided leaves, and inconspicuous greenish flowers borne in small heads. Com¬ mon ragweed (A. artemisiifolia ) is found across North America. Pollen shed by ragweeds in great abundance in late summer is the principal cause of hay fever in eastern and middle North America. Since ragweeds are annuals, mowing before pollination season eradicates them.
rail Any of about 100 species (family Rallidae) of slender marsh birds found almost worldwide. Rails have short rounded wings, a short tail, large feet, and long toes. Their loud call, especially at night, reveals their presence in dense vegetation. They are mostly dull grays and browns, often with barred patterns. Species vary from 4 to 18 in. (11-45 cm) long. Short-billed species are often called crakes. The king ( Rallus ele- gans), clapper (R. longirostris ), and Virginia ( R. limicola) rails and the sora, or Carolina rail ( Porzana Caro¬ lina ), have been hunted in the U.S.; several of the rails are now endan¬ gered, and some species have been exterminated.