relativity Concept in physics that measurements change when consid¬ ered by observers in various states of motion. In classical physics, it was assumed that all observers anywhere in the universe would obtain identical measurements of space and time intervals. According to relativity theory, this is not so; all measurements depend on the relative motions of the observer and the observed. There are two distinct theories of relativity, both proposed by Albert Einstein. The special theory of relativity (1905) devel¬ oped from Einstein’s acceptance that the speed of light is the same in all reference frames, irrespective of their relative motion. It deals with non¬ accelerating reference frames, and is concerned primarily with electric and magnetic phenomena and their propagation in space and time. The general theory (1916) was developed primarily to deal with gravitation and involves accelerating reference frames. Both theories are major milestones in the history of modern physics. See also equivalence principle, space-time.
relay race Race between teams in which each team member succes¬ sively covers a specified portion of the course. In track events, such as the 4 x 100-m and 4 x 400-m relays, the runner finishing one leg passes a baton to the next runner while both are running within a marked exchange zone. In swimming com¬ petitions, such as the 4 x 100-m and 4 x 200-m freestyle races and the 4 x 100-m medley, the swimmer com¬ pleting one leg touches the edge of the pool to signal the start of the next teammate’s leg.
relief or rilievo \ril-'ye-vo\ (from Italian, rilievare : “to raise”) In sculp¬ ture, any work in which the figures project from a supporting back¬ ground, usually a plane surface. Bas- reliefs (“low reliefs”), in which the design projects only slightly, were common on the walls of stone build¬ ings in ancient Egypt, Assyria, and elsewhere in the Middle East. High reliefs, in which the forms project at least half or more of their natural cir¬ cumference, were first employed by the ancient Greeks. Italian Renais¬ sance sculptors combined high and low relief in strikingly illusionistic compositions, as in Lorenzo Ghiber¬ ti’s bronze doors in Florence.
Baroque sculptors continued these
experiments, often on a larger scale (e.g., Alessandro Algardi’s Meeting of Attila and Pope Leo, 1646-53). The dramatic possibilities of the Renaissance concept of relief were later notably employed by Francois Rude ( The Marseillaise, 1833-36) and Auguste Rodin (The Gates of Hell).
relief Public or private aid to people in economic need because of natu¬ ral disasters, wars, economic upheaval, chronic unemployment, or other conditions that prevent self-sufficiency. A distinction may be drawn between relief targeting upheavals and natural disasters and relief of chronic social conditions, now usually referred to as welfare. In 17th- century China the government maintained ever-normal granaries for use in the event of famine. Through the 19th century, disaster relief in Europe consisted largely of emergency grants of food, clothing, and medical care through hastily organized local committees. In the 20th century, disaster relief became one of the chief activities of the International Red Cross and other international agencies. Assistance to the needy from public funds has traditionally been strictly limited; in England, the Poor Law Reform Act of 1834 required people able to work to enter a workhouse in order to receive public assistance. The U.S. government responded to the Great Depression with the New Deal, which emphasized work relief programs such as the Works Progress Administration. In the later 20th century, the work requirement was abandoned in most countries, and the needy received direct cash payments, though in the U.S. the movement for wel¬ fare reform resulted in the passage in 1996 of “workfare” laws cutting off relief for most able-bodied welfare recipients who failed to find a job or perform community service.
relief printing See letterpress printing
religion Relation of human beings to God or the gods or to whatever they consider sacred or, in some cases, merely supernatural. Archaeologi¬ cal evidence suggests that religious beliefs have existed since the first human communities. They are generally shared by a community, and they express the communal culture and values through myth, doctrine, and ritual. Worship is probably the most basic element of religion, but moral conduct, right belief, and participation in religious institutions also con¬ stitute elements of the religious life. Religions attempt to answer basic questions intrinsic to the human condition (Why do we suffer? Why is there evil in the world? What happens to us when we die?) through the relationship to the sacred or supernatural or (e.g., in the case of Buddhism) through perception of the true nature of reality. Broadly speaking, some religions (e.g., Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) are outwardly focused, and others (e.g.. Jainism, Buddhism) are inwardly focused.
religion, philosophy of Branch of philosophy that studies key meta¬ physical and epistemological concepts, principles, and problems of reli¬ gion. Topics considered include the existence and nature of God, the possibility of knowledge of God, human freedom (the free will problem), immortality, and the problems of moral and natural evil and suffering. Natural theology is the attempt to establish knowledge of God without dependence on revelation. Traditional arguments for the existence of God include the ontological argument, the cosmological argument, and the
ARGUMENT FROM DESIGN.
Religion, Wars of (1562-98) Conflicts in France between Protestants and Catholics. The spread of French Calvinism persuaded the French ruler Catherine de Medicis to show more tolerance for the Huguenots, which angered the powerful Catholic de Guise family. Its partisans massacred a Huguenot congregation at Vassy (1562), causing an uprising in the prov¬ inces. Many inconclusive skirmishes followed, and compromises were reached in 1563, 1568, and 1570. After the murder of the Huguenot leader Gaspard II de Cougny in the Massacre of Saint Bartholomew's Day (1572), the civil war resumed. A peace compromise in 1576 allowed the Hugue¬ nots freedom of worship. An uneasy peace existed until 1584, when the Huguenot leader Henry of Navarra (later Henry IV) became heir to the French throne. This led to the War of the Three Henrys and later brought Spain to the aid the Catholics. The wars ended with Henry’s embrace of Catholicism and the religious toleration of the Huguenots guaranteed by the Edict of Nantes (1598).
Religious Science Movement founded in the U.S. by Ernest Holmes (1887-1960). After publishing his major work, The Science of the Mind (1926), Holmes established the Institute of Religious Science and Philoso¬ phy (1927). In 1949 Religious Science was established as a denomination; it soon split into two groups. It teaches that the individual mind and the Universal Mind are one and that the universe is the material manifestation of the Universal Mind. Like New Thought, it teaches that evil stems from
Athena mourning, mezzo-relievo from the Acropolis, 5th century BC, in the Acropolis Museum, Athens
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1606 I Remagen ► renal cyst
ignorance of humanity’s true higher identity and that prayer can bring about healing not only of spiritual but of physical ailments.
Remagen \'ra-,mag- 3 n\ Town (pop., 2002 est.: 16,134), western Ger¬ many. Located on the left bank of the Rhine River, southeast of Bonn, it originated as a Roman fortress and still has Roman remains. During World War II its railroad bridge was the site where Allied troops forced a cross¬ ing of the Rhine (1945) for the first time in the war.
Remak \'ra-,mak\ / Robert (b. July 26, 1815, Posen, Prussia—d. Aug. 29, 1865, Kissingen, Bavaria) German embryologist and neurologist. He discovered and named the three germ layers of cells that develop in the early embryo: the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. He also discov¬ ered Remak fibres (nerve fibres with no myelin sheath) and Remak gan¬ glia (neurons in the heart) and was a pioneer in electrotherapy for nervous diseases. He achieved enough eminence to obtain a lectureship at the University of Berlin despite Prussian laws barring Jews from teaching.