312-37
Nero
54-68
Constantine II
337-40
Galba
68-69
Constans 1
337-50
Otho
69
Constantius II
337-61
Vitellius
69
Magnentius
350-53
Vespasian
69-79
Julian
361-63
Titus
79-81
Jovian
363-64
Domitian
81-96
Theodosius 1
379-95
Nerva
96-98
East only
Trajan
98-117
Diocletian
284-305
Hadrian
117-38
Galerius
305-11
Antoninus Pius
138-61
Licinius
308-24
Marcus Aurelius
161-80
Valens
364-78
Lucius Verus
161-69
Procopius
365-66
Commodus
177-92
Arcadius
395-408
Pertinax
193
Theodosius II
408-50
Didius Julianus
193
Marcian
450-57
Septimius Severus
193-211
Leo 1
457-74
Caracalla
198-217
Leo II
474
Geta
209-12
Zeno
474-91
Macrinus
217-18
West only
Elagabalus
218-22
Maximian
286-305
Severus Alexander
222-35
??
306-8
Maxim in
235-38
Constantius 1 Chlorus
305-6
Gordian 1
238
Severus
306-7
Gordian II
238
Maxentius
306-12
Maximus
238
Valentinian 1
364-75
Balbinus
238
Gratian
375-83
Gordian III
238-44
Valentinian II
375-92
Philip
244-49
Honorius
395-423
Decius
249-51
Constantius III
421
Hostilian
251
Valentinian III
425-55
Gallus
251-53
Petronius Maximus
455
Aemilian
253
Avitus
455-56
Valerian
253-60
Majorian
457-61
Gallienus
253-68
Libius Severus
461-67
Claudius II Gothicus
268-70
Anthemius
467-72
Quintillus
269-70
Olybrius
472
Aurelian
270-75
Glycerius
473-74
Tacitus
275-76
Julius Nepos
474-75
Florian
276
Romulus Augustulus
475-76
Probus
276-82
‘For Eastern emperors after the fall of Rome, see Byzantine empire.
sculpture after almost 600 years of dormancy. Relief sculpture depicted biblical history and church doctrine on column capitals and around the massive doors of churches. Natural objects were freely transformed into visionary images that derive their power from abstract linear design and expressive distortion. Linear stylization is seen also in the capital letters and marginal decoration of illuminated manuscripts. Romanesque art was concerned with transcendental values, in sharp contrast to the naturalism and humanism of the earlier Classical and later Gothic art traditions. Monumental painting that imitated the sculptural style covered the inte¬ rior walls of churches. Both sculpture and painting incorporated a broad range of subject matter, including theological works, reflecting the revival of learning. See also Romanesque architecture.
Romania or Rumania Country, northeastern Balkan Peninsula, south¬ eastern Europe. Area: 92,043 sq mi (238,391 sq km). Population (2005 est.): 21,602,000. Capitaclass="underline" Bucharest. Most of the people are Romanian; a minority are Hungarian. Language: Romanian (official). Religion: Chris¬ tianity (predominantly Eastern Orthodox; also Protestant, Roman Catho¬ lic). Currency: leu. The land is dominated by the great arc of the Carpathian Mountains, whose highest peak, Moldoveanu, reaches an elevation of 8,346 ft (2,544 m). The Danube River forms most of the southern boundary with Bulgaria. Under communist rule (1948-89), Romania had a centrally planned economy that was transformed from an agricultural into an indus¬ trial economy. From 1991 the postcommunist government began returning industrial and commercial enterprises to the private sector. Romania is a republic with two legislative houses; its chief of state is the president, and
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the head of government is the prime minis¬ ter. Romania was formed in 1859 by the de facto unification of Moldavia and Walachia (for earlier history, see Dacia). During World War I it sided with the Allies and
doubled its territory in 1918 with the addition of Transylvania, Bukovina, and Bessarabia. Allied with Germany in World War II, Romania was occu¬ pied by Soviet troops in 1944 and became a satellite of the U.S.S.R. in 1948. During the 1960s Romania’s foreign policy was frequently indepen¬ dent of the Soviet Union’s. The communist regime of Nicolae Ceau$escu was overthrown in 1989, and free elections were held in 1990. In the 1990s Romania struggled with rampant corruption, but it entered the 21st century with a stabilizing economy. In 2004 it joined NATO.
Romanian language Xru-'ma-ne-on, ro-'ma-ne-onX Romance lan¬ guage spoken mainly in Romania and Moldova. The name Romanian is usually identified with Daco-Romanian, one of the four major dialects of Balkan Romance. Other dialects are Aromanian (Macedo-Romanian), spoken in scattered communities in Greece, Macedonia, Albania, and Bul¬ garia; the nearly extinct Megleno-Romanian, spoken in northern Greece; and Istro-Romanian, spoken on Croatia’s Istrian Peninsula. The earliest known continuous text in Romanian dates from 1521. Romanian’s pho¬ nology, grammar, and vocabulary reflect its relative isolation from other Romance languages and its close contact with the Slavic languages. Writ¬ ten in the Cyrillic alphabet until the 19th century, Romanian now uses the Latin alphabet.
Romano, Giulio See Giulio Romano
Romanov, Michael See Michael
Romanov Xro-'ma-nof, 'ro-ms-.nofV dynasty Rulers of Russia from 1613 to 1917. The name derived from Roman Yurev (d. 1543), whose daughter Anastasiya Romanovna was the first wife of Ivan IV the Terrible. Her nephews assumed the surname Romanov, and the dynasty began with the election of Michael Romanov as tsar in 1613. He was succeeded by his son Alexis (r. 1645-76), followed by Alexis’s sons Fyodor III and joint rulers Ivan V and Peter I. When Peter was sole ruler, he decreed in 1722 that the monarch could choose his successor, but he was unable to effect the law, so the crown passed to his wife Catherine I, his grandson Peter II, and Ivan V’s daughter Anna. The line of descent returned to Peter’s daughter Elizabeth (r. 1741-62), her nephew Peter III and his wife Cathe¬ rine II the Great, and their son Paul I. Paul established a definite order of succession and was followed by his sons Alexander I (r. 1801-25) and Nicholas I (r. 1825-55). Nicholas was succeeded by his son Alexander II, grandson Alexander III, and great-grandson Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917), the last ruler of the Russian monarchy.