Banneker, Benjamin (b. Nov. 9, 1731, Ellicott’s Mills, Md.—d. Oct. 25, 1806, Baltimore, Md., U.S.) American astronomer, compiler of alma¬ nacs, and inventor. A free black who owned a farm near Baltimore, Ban¬ neker was largely self-educated in astronomy and mathematics. In 1761 he attracted attention by building a wooden clock that kept precise time. He began astronomical calculations about 1773, accurately predicted a solar eclipse in 1789, and published annually from 1791 to 1802 the Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia Almanac and Ephem- eris. (He sent an early copy of the almanac to Thomas Jefferson to counter a contention that blacks were intellectually inferior.) In 1790 he was appointed to the commission that surveyed the site for Washington, D.C. He also wrote essays denouncing slavery and war.
Banner system Military organization used by the Manchu tribes of Manchuria (now northeastern China) to conquer and control China in the 17th century. The system was developed by the Manchu leader Nurhachi, who in 1601 organized his warriors into four companies, each known for its banner of a distinguishing colour. More Banners (as the companies were known) were soon established, and, as the Manchus began to con¬ quer their Chinese and Mongol neighbours, they organized their captives into similar companies. With these troops the Manchus conquered China and established the Qing dynasty in 1644. Over time, the Banners’ fight¬ ing qualities deteriorated, until by the end of the 19th century the system had become largely ineffective.
Bannister, Sir Roger (Gilbert) (b. March 23, 1929, Harrow, Mid¬ dlesex, Eng.) British runner. He attended the University of Oxford before earning a medical degree. In 1954 he became the first person to run a mile in less than four minutes (3 minutes 59.4 seconds). Many authorities had
previously regarded the four-minute mile “barrier” as unbreakable. A neu¬ rologist, he wrote papers on the physiology of exercise, and he is said to have achieved his speed through scientific training methods.
Bannockburn, Battle of (June 23-24, 1314) Decisive battle in Scot¬ tish history, at which the Scots under Robert the Bruce (later Robert I) defeated the English under Edward II. The Scots were outnumbered three to one by the English soldiers, but they triumphed through masterly use of terrain, forcing the English onto a cramped, marshy battlefield with little room to maneuver. The English forces were put to flight, and many were slaughtered by the pursuing Scots. The victory cleared the last English troops from Scotland and secured Scottish independence, con¬ firming Robert as king of the Scots.
Banpo \'ban-'po\ or Pan-p'o Site of a Neolithic village located on the Wei River in China, dating to the earlier part of the Yangshao culture, 5000-4000 bc. A huge number of artifacts have been uncovered, includ¬ ing 8,000 stone and bone tools, pottery fragments, and clay figurines. The main cultivated crop was foxtail millet; the diet was supplemented through hunting and gathering. Pigs and dogs were domesticated, and evidence of hemp and silkworm cultivation point to textile manufacture. Some 250 graves have been excavated. See also Neolithic Period.
Banque de France \'ba n k-d3-'fra n s\ National bank of France, created in 1800 to restore confidence in the French banking system after the financial upheavals of the revolutionary period. Napoleon was one of its founding shareholders. The bank has primary responsibility for formulat¬ ing and implementing credit and monetary policies in France and for the orderly functioning of the banking system. It also has the exclusive privi¬ lege of issuing currency. See also central bank.
Bantam Former city and sultanate, Java. It was located at the western end of Java between the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean. In the early 16th century it became a powerful Muslim sultanate, which extended its con¬ trol over parts of Sumatra and Borneo. Invaded by the Dutch, Portuguese, and British, it ultimately recognized Dutch sovereignty in 1684. The city was Java’s most important port for the European spice trade until its har¬ bour silted up in the late 18th century. It suffered severely from the erup¬ tion of Krakatoa in 1883.
Banting, Sir Frederick Grant (b. Nov. 14, 1891, Alliston, Ont., Can.—d. Feb. 21, 1941, Nfd.) Canadian physician. He taught at the Uni¬ versity of Toronto from 1923. With Charles Best, he was the first to obtain a pancreatic extract of insulin (1921), which, in the laboratory of J.J.R. Macleod, they isolated in a form effective against diabetes. Banting and Macleod received a 1923 Nobel Prize for the discovery of insulin; Banting voluntarily shared his portion of the prize with Best.
Bantu languages Group of some 500 languages belonging to the Benue-Congo language branch of the Niger-Congo language family. They are spoken by more than 200 million people in a very large area, includ¬ ing most of Africa from southern Cameroon eastward to Kenya and south¬ ward to the southernmost tip of the continent. Twelve Bantu languages, including Rundi (Kirundi), Rwanda (Kinyarwanda), Shona, Zulu, and Xhosa, are spoken by more than 5 million people.
Bantu peoples Speakers of the close to 500 distinct Bantu languages, numbering more than 200 million and occupying almost the entire south¬ ern projection of Africa. The classification is primarily linguistic, for the cultural patterns of Bantu speakers are extremely diverse. Included in the group are the Bemba, Bena, Chaga, Chewa, Embu, Fang, Ganda, Gusii, Hehe, Herero, Hutu, Kagwe, Kikuyu, Luba, Luhya, Lunda, Makonde, Meru, Nayamwezi, Ndebele, Nkole, Nyakyusa, Nyoro, Pedi, Shona, Sotho, Swazi, Tsonga, Tswana, Tutsi, Venda, Xhosa, Yao, Zaramo, and Zulu.
banyan Unusually shaped tree {Ficus benghalensis, or F. indica ) of the fig genus in the mulberry family, native to tropical Asia. Aerial roots that develop from its branches descend and take root in the soil to become new trunks. The banyan reaches a height of up to 100 ft (30 m) and spreads laterally indefinitely. One tree may in time assume the appearance of a very dense thicket as a result of the tangle of roots and trunks.
Banzer Suarez Vban-ser-'swa-res\, Hugo (b. July 10, 1926, Santa Cruz, Bol.—d. May 5, 2002, Santa Cruz) Soldier and president of Bolivia (1971-78, 1997-2001). After an education in Bolivian and U.S. Army training schools, Banzer served in various government posts. He became president after participating in the overthrow of two Bolivian governments in 1970 and 1971. A conservative, he encouraged foreign investment and
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164 I Bao Dai ► Barak River
severely repressed all opposition. His restrictions of union activities and constitutional liberties led to opposition by labour, the clergy, peasants, and students. A 1978 coup d’etat overthrew him, but he was democrati¬ cally elected in 1997. He resigned in 2001.
Bao Dai Vbau-'dl\ orig. Nguyen Vinh Thuy (b. Oct. 22, 1913, Vietnam—d. Aug. 1, 1997, Paris, France) Last reigning emperor of Viet¬ nam (r. 1926-45, 1949-55). He was educated in France and in 1926 suc¬ ceeded to a throne that was dominated by the French. Retained as a powerless ruler under the Japanese during World War II, he fled the coun¬ try after the Viet Minh drove the Japanese out. In 1949 the French, having agreed to the principle of an independent Vietnam, invited him to return as sovereign. He did, but he accomplished little and retired to France in 1955 when a national referendum called for the country to become a republic.
baobab \'bau-,bab\ Tree (Adansonia digitata ) of the bombax family (Bombacaceae), native to Africa. The barrel-like trunk may reach a diam¬ eter of 30 ft (9 m) and a height of 60 ft (18 m). The large, gourdlike, woody fruit contains a tasty pulp. A strong fibre from the bark is used locally for rope and cloth. The trunks are often excavated to serve as water reserves or temporary shelters. For its extraordinary shape the baobab is grown as a curiosity in areas of warm climate, such as Florida. A related species, A. gregorii, occurs in Australia, where it is also called a bottle tree.