Sampras, Pete (b. Aug. 12, 1971, Washington, D.C., U.S.) U.S. ten¬ nis player. He learned tennis after moving to southern California in 1978. He was a five-time U.S. Open champion (1990, 1993, 1995-96, 2002), seven-time Wimbledon champion (1993-95, 1997-2000), and two-time Australian Open champion (1994, 1997). In 2000 he won his 7th Wim¬ bledon men’s singles trophy, setting a world record of 13 grand-slam vic¬ tories; he claimed his 14th grand-slam title at the 2002 U.S. Open. He was known for his high-powered serves, accurate volleys, and unassum¬ ing demeanour. In 2003 Sampras retired from professional tennis.
Sampson, William T(homas) (b. Feb. 9, 1840, Palmyra, N.Y., U.S.—d. May 6, 1902, Washington, D.C.) U.S. naval officer. After gradu¬ ating from Annapolis, he served in the American Civil War. He was super¬ intendent of the U.S. Naval Academy (1886-90) and chief of the ordnance bureau (1893-97). In the Spanish-American War he commanded the Atlantic squadron in its blockade of the Spanish fleet at Santiago de Cuba (1898). When the Spanish tried to escape from the harbour, his squadron destroyed the fleet. Though he had outlined the plans for the battle, he was absent on shore when it took place. Credited with the victory, he was promoted to rear admiral.
samsara Nsom-'sar-o, soq-'sar-oV In Buddhism and Hinduism, the endless round of birth, death, and rebirth to which all conditioned beings are sub¬ ject. Samsara is conceived as having no perceptible beginning or end. The particulars of an individual’s wanderings in samsara are determined by karma. In Hinduism, moksha is release from samsara. In Buddhism, sam¬ sara is transcended by the attainment of nirvana. The range of samsara stretches from the lowliest insect (sometimes the vegetable and mineral kingdoms are included) to Brahma, the highest of the gods.
samskara Xsom-'skar-o, soq-'skar-aV In Hinduism, any of the personal sacraments traditionally observed at every stage of life, from the moment of conception to the scattering of one’s funeral ashes. The observance of the samskaras is based on custom and on such texts as the Puranas, and differs considerably according to region, caste, or family. The most gen¬ erally accepted list of 16 traditional samskaras includes ceremonies for conception, a male birth, name-giving, the upanayana, and marriage. There is also a body of noncanonical samskaras performed by and for the benefit of women.
Samson Israelite warrior hero of the Old Testament Book of Judges. His mother had been told by an angel that she would bear a son whose life would be dedicated to God and whose hair must never be cut. Samson per¬ formed many powerful acts, including slaying a lion and moving the gates of Gaza. When he revealed to a Philistine woman, Delilah, that his hair was the source of his strength, she shaved his head while he was sleeping, leav¬ ing him powerless. He was blinded and enslaved by the Philistines, but later his strength was restored and he pulled down the pillars of a temple where 3,000 Philistines had gathered, killing them and himself.
Samuel (c. 11th century bc) Old Testament prophet, the first after Moses and the last of the judges of ancient Israel. His story is told in two bib¬ lical books (1 and 2 Samuel) that relate the history of Israel in the 11th— 10th century bc. During this period, the first monarchy of Israel was established and the tribes of Israel united under a single kingdom with its capital at Jerusalem. Samuel received a revelation that led to the instal¬ lation of Saul as king, but later announced an oracle rejecting Saul and secretly anointed David as king. Scholars dispute whether the historical Samuel was the author of the two books that bear his name.
Samuel (d. Oct. 6, 1014) Tsar of Western Bulgaria (980-1014). Ruling originally in Macedonia, he conquered Serbia, northern Bulgaria, Alba¬ nia, and northern Greece. He revived the Bulgarian patriarchate and in the 980s defeated Basil II. However, his struggle with the Byzantines con¬ tinued until 1014, when Basil defeated Samuel’s army at the Battle of Belasitsa. At Basil’s order, the 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners were blinded and then returned to Samuel, who is said to have died of shock.
Samuel (of Mount Carmel and of Toxeth), Herbert Louis Samuel, 1st Viscount (b. Nov. 6, 1870, Liverpool, Eng.—d. Feb. 5, 1963, London) British politician. A social worker in the London slums, he entered the House of Commons in 1902, where he effected legislation that established juvenile courts and the Borstal system for youthful offend¬ ers. As postmaster general (1910-14, 1915-16), he nationalized the tele¬ phone system. Appointed the first British high commissioner for Palestine (1920-25), he improved the region’s economy and promoted harmony among its religious communities. He presided (1925-26) over the royal commission on the coal industry and helped to settle the general strike of May 1926. He led the Liberal Party in the House of Commons (1931-35), and after being made viscount (1937), he was leader of the party in the House of Lords (1944-55). As president of the British (later Royal) Insti¬ tute of Philosophy (1931-59), he wrote popular works such as Practical Ethics (1935) and Belief and Action (1937).
Samuelson, Paul (Anthony) (b. May 15, 1915, Gary, Ind., U.S.) U.S. economist. He received his Ph.D. from Harvard and taught at Mas¬ sachusetts Institute of Technology from 1940, becoming an emeritus pro-
like dog developed in Siberia, where Siberian peoples kept it as a sled dog, companion, and herd dog for their reindeer. It has erect ears, dark, almond-shaped eyes, and a charac¬ teristic “smile.” Its long, heavy coat is white, cream-coloured, grayish yellow (biscuit), or white-and- biscuit. It stands 19-24 in. (48-60 cm) tall and weighs 50-65 lb (23-30 kg). Gentle, loyal, and intelligent, it makes a capable guard and a good companion.
sampo \'sam-po\ In Finnish mythology, a mysterious object that has been variously identified but is
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
samurai ► San Gabriel Mountains I 1677
fessor in 1986. His Foundations of Economic Analysis (1947) outlines a basic theme of his work, the universal nature of consumer behaviour as the key to economic theory. His studies included the dynamics of eco¬ nomic systems, analyses of public goods, welfare economics, and public expenditure. His most influential work was perhaps his mathematical for¬ mulation of multiplier and accelerator effects and, in consumption analy¬ sis, his development of the theory of revealed preference. His classic Economics (1948) is the best-selling U.S. economics textbook of all time. For his fundamental contributions to nearly all branches of economics, he became in 1970 the third person to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Eco¬ nomic Sciences.
samurai Member of the Japanese warrior class. In early Japanese his¬ tory, culture was associated with the imperial court, and warriors were accorded low status. The samurai became important with the rise in pri¬ vate estates ( shoen ), which needed military protection. Their power increased, and when Minamoto Yoritomo became the first shogun (mili¬ tary ruler) of the Kamakura period (1192-1333), they became the ruling class. They came to be characterized by the ethic of bushido, which stressed discipline, stoicism, and service. Samurai culture developed fur¬ ther under the Ashikaga shoguns of the Muromachi period (1338-1573). During the long interval of peace of the Tokugawa period (1603-1867), they were largely transformed into civil bureaucrats. As government employees, they received a stipend that was worth less and less in the flourishing merchant economy of the 18th—19th centuries in Edo (Tokyo) and Osaka. By the mid-19th century, lower-ranking samurai, eager for societal change and anxious to create a strong Japan in the face of West¬ ern encroachment, overthrew the shogunal government in the Meiji Resto¬ ration of 1868. Feudal distinctions were abolished in 1871. Some samurai rebelled (see Saigo Takamori), but most threw themselves into the task of modernizing Japan. See also daimyo; han.