the historical drama Wallenstein (1800). During a period spent formulat¬ ing his views on aesthetic activity, he produced philosophical essays, exquisite reflective poems, and some of his most popular ballads. He spent his last years in ill health in Weimar, near his friend Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. His mature plays, including Maria Stuart (performed 1800) and Wilhelm Tell (1804), examine the inward freedom of the soul that enables the individual to rise above physical frailties and the pressure of material conditions.
Schinkel Vshiq-kolV Karl Friedrich (b. March 13, 1781, near Bran¬ denburg, Brandenburg—d. Oct. 9, 1841, Berlin) German architect and painter. As state architect of Prussia (from 1815), he executed many com¬ missions for Frederick William III and other royal family members. He based his work on the revival of various historical styles. His mausoleum for Queen Louise (1810) and the brick and terra-cotta Werdersche Kirche, Berlin (1821-30), are among the earliest Gothic Revival designs in Europe. Other works include the Greek Revival Schauspielhaus (1818) and Altes Museum (1822-30), both in Berlin. In 1830 Schinkel became director of the Prussian Office of Public Works; his work as a city planner resulted in new boulevards and squares in Berlin. His Romantic-Classical cre¬ ations in architecture, landscape painting, and other related arts such as stage sets and ironwork made him the leading arbiter of national aesthetic taste in his lifetime.
schipperke Vski-por-ke, 'shi-por-keX Dog breed that originated in Flanders and was used as a guard on barges. The schipperke (“little cap¬ tain”) is descended from the Leauvenaar, which also gave rise to the Bel¬ gian sheepdog. A short, thickset, tailless dog with a dense black coat and a foxlike head, it stands 12-13 in. (31-33 cm) and weighs up to 18 lbs (8 kg). It has a lively, inquisitive expression and is generally hardy and energetic, an able vermin hunter, and a good watchdog.
Schism \'si-z3m\, Photian Controversy between Eastern and Western Christianity in the 9th century, triggered by the opposition of the Roman pope to the appointment of Photius as patriarch of Constantinople. Eccle¬ siastical rights of jurisdiction in the Bulgarian church and a doctrinal dis¬ pute over the insertion of the Filioque (“and from the Son”) clause in the Nicene Creed were also at issue. Photius withdrew from communion with Rome in 867; he himself was finally exiled in 886.
Schism, Western or Great Schism (1378-1417) In Roman Catho¬ lic history, a period when there were two, and later three, rival popes, each with his own College of Cardinals. The schism began soon after the papal residence was returned to Rome from Avignon (see Avignon papacy). Urban VI was elected amid local demands for an Italian pope, but a group of cardinals with French sympathies elected an antipope, Clement VII, who took up residence at Avignon. Cardinals from both sides met at Pisa in 1409 and elected a third pope in an effort to end the schism. The rift was not healed until the Council of Constance vacated all three seats and elected Martin V as pope in 1417.
Schism of 1054 or East-West Schism Event that separated the Byzantine and Roman churches. The Eastern and Western churches had long been estranged over doctrinal issues such as the relationship of the Holy Spirit to the Father and the Son. The Eastern church resented the Roman enforcement of clerical celibacy and the limitation of the right of confirmation to the bishop. There were also jurisdictional disputes between Rome and Constantinople, including Rome’s assertion of papal primacy. In 1054 Pope Leo IX, through his representative Humbert of Silva Candida, and the patriarch of Constantinople, Michael Cerularius, excom¬ municated each other, an event that marked the final break between the two churches. The rift widened in subsequent centuries, and the churches have remained separate, though the excommunications were lifted by the papacy and the patriarch in the 20th century. See also Eastern Orthodoxy; Roman Catholicism.
schist \'shist\ Crystalline metamorphic rock that has a highly developed tendency to split into layers. Most schists are composed largely of platy minerals such as muscovite, chlorite, talc, biotite, and graphite. The green colour of many schists and their formation under a certain range of tem¬ perature and pressure conditions have led to distinction of the greenschist facies in the mineral facies classification of metamorphic rocks. Schists are usually classified on the basis of their mineralogy, with varietal names that indicate the characteristic mineral present.
schistosomiasis V.shis-to-ss-'mI-o-sosV or bilharziasis \,bil-,har- 'zi-3-s3s\ Group of chronic disorders caused by parasitic flatworms of the
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1698 I schizophrenia ► Schlesinger
genus Schistosoma (blood flukes). Depending on the infecting species, thousands of eggs released by the females reach either the intestine or the bladder, are excreted in feces or urine, and hatch on contact with fresh water. The larvae invade snails, develop to the next stage, emerge into the water, and invade mammals to feed and breed in the bloodstream. An ini¬ tial allergic reaction (inflammation, cough, late-afternoon fever, hives, liver tenderness) and blood in the stools and urine give way to a chronic stage, in which eggs impacted in the walls of organs cause fibrous thick¬ ening (fibrosis). This condition can lead to serious liver damage in the intestinal types and to bladder stones, fibrosis of other pelvic organs, and urinary-tract bacterial infection. In most cases, early diagnosis and per¬ sistent treatment to kill the adult worms ensure recovery.
schizophrenia \,skit-s3-'fre-ne-3\ Any of a group of severe mental disorders that have in common symptoms such as hallucinations, delu¬ sions, blunted emotions, disorganized thinking, and withdrawal from real¬ ity. Five main types are recognized: the paranoid, characterized by delusions of persecution or grandeur combined with unrealistic, illogical thinking and frequent auditory hallucinations; the disorganized (hebephre¬ nic), characterized by disordered speech and behaviour and shallow or inappropriate emotional responses; the catatonic, characterized by motor inflexibility or stupor along with mutism, echolalia, or other speech abnor¬ malities; the simple or undifferentiated type, which conforms to basic definitions of schizophrenia but does not exhibit particular behaviours in the aforementioned types; and the residual type, which is a chronic stage indicating advancement toward later-stage schizophrenia. Schizophrenia seems to occur in 0.5-1% of the general population, and more than half of those so diagnosed will eventually recover. There is strong evidence that genetic inheritance plays a role, but no single cause of schizophrenia has been identified. Stressful life experiences may help trigger its onset. Treatment consists of drug therapy and counseling.
Schlegel Vshla-golX, August Wilhelm von (b. Sept. 8, 1767, Han¬ nover, Hanover—d. May 12, 1845, Bonn) German scholar and critic. He worked as a tutor and wrote for Friedrich Schiller’s short-lived periodical Die Horen before cofounding with his brother Friedrich von Schlegel the periodical Athenaum (1798-1800), which became the organ of German Romanticism. While a professor at the University of Jena, he undertook translations of the works of William Shakespeare (1797-1810) that became standard editions and are among the finest of all German literary trans¬ lations. His Lectures on Dramatic Art and Literature (1809-11) was widely translated and helped spread fundamental Romantic ideas through¬ out Europe. From 1818 until his death he taught at the University of Bonn.
Schlegel, Friedrich von (b. March 10, 1772, Hannover, Hanover—d. Jan. 12, 1829, Dresden, Saxony) German writer and critic. He contributed many of his projects and theories to journals such as Athenaum (1798— 1800), the quarterly he and his brother August Wilhelm von Schlegel founded at Jena. His study of Sanskrit led him to publish Concerning the Language and Wisdom of India (1808), a pioneering attempt at compara¬ tive Indo-European linguistics and the starting point of the study of Indo- Aryan languages and comparative philology. His conception of a universal, historical, and comparative literary scholarship has been pro¬ foundly influential, and he is regarded as the originator of many of the philosophical ideas that inspired early German Romanticism.