Schoenberg Vshoen-.berkA English X'sharn-.bargX, Arnold (Franz Walter) (b. Sept. 13, 1874, Vienna,
Austro-Hungarian Empire—d. July 13, 1951, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.)
Austrian-born U.S. composer. He was raised as a Catholic by his Jewish-bom parents. He began studying violin at age eight and later taught himself cello. While working as a bank clerk, he studied composi¬ tion with Alexander Zemlinsky (1871-1942); Schoenberg soon wrote his first string quartet (1897), which was acclaimed. With Richard Strauss’s help he obtained a teaching post in Berlin, but he soon returned to Vienna, having composed his gigantic cantata Gurrelieder (1901, orchestrated 1913). In 1904 Alban Berg and Anton Webern began their studies with him, which would pro¬ foundly shape their later artistic careers. About 1906 Schoenberg came to believe that tonality had to be abandoned. During his subsequent period of “free atonauty” (1907-16) he created remarkable works such as the monodrama Erwartung (1909), Five Orchestral Pieces (1909), and Pierrot lunaire (1912). From 1916 to 1923 he issued almost nothing, being occupied with teaching and conducting but also seeking a way to orga¬ nize atonality. He eventually developed the 12-tone method (see serial- ism), in which each composition is formed from a special row or series of 12 different tones. In 1930 he began work on a three-act opera based on
a single tone row; Moses undAron remained unfinished at his death. The rise of Nazism moved him to reassert his Jewish faith and forced him to flee to the U.S., where he remained, teaching at the University of Cali¬ fornia at Los Angeles (1936-44). Though never embraced by a broad public, he may have exercised a greater influence on 20th-century music than any other composer.
Scholasticism Theological and philosophical movement, beginning in the 11th century, that sought to integrate the secular understanding of the ancient world, as exemplified by Aristotle, with the dogma implicit in the revelations of Christianity. Its aim was a synthesis of learning in which theology surmounted the hierarchy of knowledge. Principal figures in early Scholasticism were Peter Abelard, St. Anselm of Canterbury, St. Alber- tus Magnus, and Roger Bacon. The movement flourished in the 13th cen¬ tury, drawing on the writings and doctrines of St. Thomas Aquinas. By the 14th century Scholasticism was in decline, but it had laid the foundations for many revivals and revisitations in later centuries, particularly under Pope Leo XIII (1879), who sought to modernize the insights of the medi¬ eval scholastics. Modem philosophers influenced by Scholasticism include Jacques Maritain and Etienne Gilson (1884-1978).
Schonerer X'shoe-no-rarX, Georg, knight von (b. July 17, 1842, Vienna, Austria—d. Aug. 14, 1921, Rosenau bei Zwettl) Austrian politi¬ cal extremist. In 1873 he was elected to the federal parliament as a left- wing liberal. He became an ardent German nationalist and outspoken anti-Semite and in 1885 founded the Pan-German Party. Reelected to the parliament in 1897, he opposed the pro-Czech language ordinances and was credited with driving the prime minister from office. He helped 21 Pan-German candidates win election to the parliament in 1901. His vio¬ lent temperament so disrupted the party that by 1907 it had virtually dis¬ appeared from Austrian politics, but his ideological influence continued undiminished.
Schongauer X'shon-.gau-orX, Martin (b. 1445/50, Colmar, Alsace—d. Feb. 2, 1491, Breisach, Baden) German painter and printmaker. Though a prolific painter whose panels were sought in many countries, it was as an engraver that he was unrivaled in northern Europe. His engravings, consisting of about 115 plates, represent a highly refined manifestation of the late Gothic spirit. He brought engraving to maturity by expanding its range of contrasts and textures, bringing an artist’s sensibility to an art hitherto the domain of goldsmiths. The grace of his work became pro¬ verbial in his lifetime, giving rise to such nicknames as Hiibsch (“Charm¬ ing”) Martin and Schon (“Beautiful”) Martin.
school psychology Branch of applied psychology that deals largely with educational assessment, psychological testing, and student consulta¬ tion in elementary and secondary schools. School psychologists train in educational and developmental psychology as well as in general psychol¬ ogy, counseling, and other fields. The school psychologist usually must be certified to practice in a particular school district.
Schoolcraft, Henry Rowe (b. March 28, 1793, Albany county, N.Y., U.S.—d. Dec. 10, 1864, Washington, D.C.) U.S. explorer and ethnolo¬ gist. He served as topographer on an expedition to the Lake Superior region (1820), then married a woman who was part Ojibwa and became an Indian agent. In 1832 he discovered the source of the Mississippi River at Lake Itaska, Minn. A treaty he concluded with the Ojibwa in 1836 ceded much of their land in northern Michigan to the U.S. Schoolcraft’s six- volume Indian Tribes of the United States (1851-57) was a pioneering, though flawed, work.
schooling behaviour Activity characteristic of clupeiform fish (her¬ rings, anchovies, and allies) in which many fish swim together, appearing to act as a single organism. A school of herring may contain many mil¬ lions of individuals of roughly similar size. Fishes above or below the size limit break away and form schools among themselves. The primary advantage to the fish seems to be safety for the individual. When threat¬ ened, a school of thousands of anchovies, spread over several hundred metres, will contract to a writhing sphere only a few metres across, thereby thwarting the attempt of a natural predator to catch a single indi¬ vidual.
schooner X'skti-norX Sailing ship rigged with fore-and-aft sails on its two or more masts. Though apparently developed from a 17th-century Dutch design, the first genuine schooner was built in the American colo¬ nies, probably at Gloucester, Mass., in 1713, by Andrew Robinson. Com¬ pared to square-rigged ships, they were ideal for coastal sailing; they
Arnold Schoenberg.
PICTORIAL PARADE
© 2006 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
Schopenhauer ► Schulz I 1701
handled better in the varying coastal winds, had shallower drafts for shal¬ low waters, and required a smaller crew in proportion to their size. By the end of the century, they were the most important North American ship, used for the coastal trade and for fishing. After 1800 they became popu¬ lar in Europe and around the world. Cupper ships married the schooner design to that of the old three-masted merchantman.
Schopenhauer Vsho-pon-.hau-orV Arthur (b. Feb. 22, 1788, Danzig, Prussia—d. Sept. 21, 1860, Frank¬ furt am Main) German philosopher.
His father was a banker and his mother a novelist. He studied in sev¬ eral fields before earning his doctor¬ ate in philosophy. He regarded the Upanishads, together with the works of Plato and Immanuel Kant, as the foundation of his philosophical sys¬ tem, a metaphysical doctrine of the will developed in reaction to the ide¬ alism of G.W.F. Hegel. His magnum opus, The World as Will and Repre¬ sentation (1819), consists of two comprehensive series of reflections on the theory of knowledge and the philosophy of nature, aesthetics, and ethics. By turning away from spirit and reason to the powers of intuition, creativity, and the irrational, he influ¬ enced (partly via Friedrich Nietzsche) the ideas and methods of vitalism, life philosophy, existentialism, and anthropology. His other works include On the Will in Nature (1836), The Two Main Problems of Ethics (1841), and Parerga and Paralipomena (1851). An unhappy and solitary man, his works earned him the sobriquet “the philosopher of pessimism.”