Schumacher Vshu- l mak-3r,\ English \ , shu-,mak-9r\ / E(rnst) F(riedrich) (b. Aug. 16, 1911, Bonn, Ger.—d. Sept. 4, 1977, Romont, Switz.) German-born British economist. After studying in England and the U.S., he settled in England in 1937. During World War II he worked on theories for full-employment policies and, under William H. Beveridge, plans for Britain’s postwar welfare state. Between 1950 and 1970 he was an adviser to Britain’s nationalized coal industry. After a visit to Burma in 1955, he came to believe that poor countries needed an “intermediate technology” adapted to the unique needs of each in order to develop. In the influential Small Is Beautiful (1973) he argued that capitalism brought higher living standards at the cost of deteriorating culture and that bigness—especially large industries and large cities—was unaffordable.
Schuman Vshu-.manX, Robert (b. June 29, 1886, Luxembourg—d. Sept. 4, 1963, Metz, France) French statesman. He was a member of the French National Assembly from 1919. After working in the French Resis¬ tance in World War II, he helped found the Popular Republican Movement. He served as finance minister (1946), premier (1947—48), foreign minis¬ ter (1948-52), and minister of justice (1955-56). In 1950 he proposed the Schuman Plan to promote European economic and military unity, which led to the European Coal and Steel Community and the European Economic Community (EEC). He served as president of the EEC’s consultative assembly (1958-60).
Schuman Vshii-msnV William (Howard) (b. Aug. 4, 1910, New York, N.Y., U.S.—d. Feb. 15, 1992, New York City) U.S. composer and administrator. He wrote songs in high school with his friend Frank Loesser. In 1930 he began studying composition with Roy Harris. He achieved suc¬ cess with his American Festival Overture (1939), and his Secular Can¬ tata No. 2: A Free Song won the first Pulitzer Prize for music (1943). His other works include ballets for Martha Graham, the popular New England Triptych (1956), and 10 symphonies. As president of the Juilliard School (1945-62), he modernized its curriculum. As the first president of Lin¬ coln Center (1962-68), he brought together several music organizations and established its Chamber Music Society and Mostly Mozart program.
Schumann Vshu-.manX, Clara orig. Clara Josephine Wieck (b.
Sept. 13, 1819, Leipzig, Saxony—d.
May 20, 1896, Frankfurt am Main,
Ger.) German pianist. Trained by her father, the noted piano teacher Friedrich Wieck (1785-1873), she debuted as a prodigy with Leipzig’s Gewandhaus Orchestra in 1830, and then she toured for two years. By 1835 she had fallen in love with Rob¬ ert Schumann, the Wiecks’ boarder since 1830. When Clara turned 21 years old, they eloped against her father’s wishes. Her artistic stature had already been established by her tours, but the birth of eight children limited her career, and she stopped writing music in 1853 after showing considerable promise as a composer.
Robert’s mental deterioration led to her resuming touring full-time; she retired from performing and teaching in the 1890s because of ill health.
From 1853 she had a close lifelong relationship with Johannes Brahms.
Schumann, Robert (Alexander) (b. June 8, 1810, Zwickau, Saxony—d. July 29, 1856, Endenich, near Bonn, Prussia) German com¬ poser. Son of a bookseller, he considered becoming a novelist. Under family pressure he reluctantly entered law school, but he devoted his time to song composition and piano lessons. An injury to one of his fingers put an end to his hopes of a career as a virtuoso and confined him to com¬ position. He embarked upon a prolific period, writing piano pieces and founding, in 1834, the New Journal for Music. His works from this fer¬ tile period include Papillons, Carnaval (both 1833-35), and Davidsbiin-
dlertanze (1837). He married the pianist Clara Wieck in 1840. That year he returned to the field of the solo song; in the span of 11 months he composed nearly all the songs on which much of his reputation rests, such as the song cycles Dichterliebe and Frauenliebe und Leben. The next year he widened his scope to orchestral music, producing Symphony No. 1, Symphony No. 4 , and his piano concerto; in 1842 he concentrated on chamber music. In his last productive years, he turned to dramatic or semidramatic works. His mental deterioration (probably associated with both syphilis and a family history of mental illness) accelerated; in 1854 he was placed in a sanatorium, where he died two years later.
Schumpeter Vshum-.pa-torV Joseph A(lois) (b. Feb. 8, 1883, Tri- esch, Moravia—d. Jan. 8, 1950, Taconic, Conn., U.S.) Moravian-U.S. economist and sociologist. Educated in Austria, he taught at several Euro¬ pean universities before joining the faculty of Harvard University (1932— 50). He became known for his theories of capitalist development and the business cycle. His popular book Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy (1942) argued that capitalism would eventually perish of its own success. His posthumous History of Economic Analysis (1954) is an exhaustive study of the development of analytic methods in economics.
Schurz Vshurts, 'shorts \, Carl (b. March 2, 1829, Liblar, near Cologne, Prussia—d. May 14, 1906, New York, N.Y., U.S.) German-U.S. poli¬ tician and journalist. After participat¬ ing in the abortive German revolution of 1848, he fled to the U.S. in 1852. He settled in Wiscon¬ sin, where he became active in the antislavery movement and the Republican Party. In the American Civil War he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and saw action in several battles. After the war he became a newspaper editor in St.
Louis (1867-69), where he won election to the U.S. Senate (1869—
75). As U.S. secretary of the interior (1877—81), he promoted civil- service reform and an improved Indian policy. He later edited the New York Evening Post and the Nation (1881-83) and wrote editori¬ als for Harper’s Weekly (1892-98). x x^x^xxxx m^xv, w , .. v
joined the Mugwumps (1884) and headed the National Civil Service Reform League (1892-1901).
Schuschnigg Vshush-nikV, Kurt von (b. Dec. 14, 1897, Riva del Garda, Trento, Austria-Hungary—d. Nov. 18, 1977, Mutters, near Inns¬ bruck, Austria) Austrian politician and chancellor (1934-38). Elected to the Austrian parliament in 1927, he served in the government of Engelbert Dollfuss as minister of justice (1932) and education (1933-34). After Doll- fuss was assassinated, Schuschnigg was named chancellor. He disbanded the paramilitary Heimwehr in 1936 and tried to prevent the German take¬ over of Austria. After making concessions to Adolf Hitler in February 1938, he sought to reassert national independence through a plebiscite to be held on March 13. However, on March 11 Germany invaded Austria and carried out the Anschluss, and Schuschnigg was imprisoned until the war ended. He later lived and taught in the U.S. (1948-67).
Schutz \'shuts\, Alfred (b. April 13, 1899, Vienna, Austria—d. May 20, 1959, New York, N.Y., U.S.) Austrian-bom U.S. sociologist and phi¬ losopher who developed a social science based on phenomenology. He emigrated to the U.S. in 1939, teaching at the New School for Social Research in New York (1943-59). He drew attention to the social pre¬ suppositions underlying everyday life and to the creation of social reality through symbols and human action. His work laid the basis for the field of ethnomethodology, the study of people’s commonsense understandings of the structure of social interaction. His principal work is The Phenom¬ enology of the Social World (1932). See also interactionism.
Schutz VshfiitsV Heinrich (b. Oct. 8, 1585, Kostritz, Saxony—d. Nov. 6, 1672, Dresden) German composer. An innkeeper’s son, he was heard singing by a nobleman staying at the inn, who underwrote his education; in 1608 he entered the University of Marburg to study law, but in 1609 he began to study music with Giovanni Gabrieli in Venice. The elector of