scripture Sacred writings of religions, comprising a large portion of the literature of the world. Scriptures vary in form, volume, age, and degree of sacredness. Nearly all scriptures were originally oral and were passed down as memorized texts through several generations before being put in writing. In some religions, notably Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism, there is still strong emphasis on the value of reciting or chanting the scriptures aloud. The Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) is the scripture of Judaism; the Bible (Old and New Testaments together) is the scripture of Christianity; and the Qu’ran is the scripture of Islam. Scriptures of Hinduism include the Vedas and Upanishads. See also Adi Granth; Avesta; Book of Mormon; sutra; Tripitaka.
sc rod Young fish (as a cod or haddock), especially one split and boned for cooking. The origin of the term is not known for certain, but it is thought to come from an Old Dutch word meaning “to shred.” It seems to have first been used around 1841.
scroll painting Art form practiced primarily in the Far East. The two dominant types are the Chinese landscape scroll and the Japanese narra¬ tive scroll. China’s greatest contribution to the history of painting, the landscape hand scroll, reached its greatest period in the 10th-11th cen¬ tury with such masters as Xu Daoning and Fan Kuan. The Japanese scroll paintings of the 12th-13th century developed the storytelling potential of painting to its greatest extent. In the earliest, Murasaki Shikibu’s literary
masterpiece The Tale of Genji, the narrative is told in pictures alternating with text. Eventually the illustration stood nearly alone. Typical subjects were the stories and biographies popular during Japan’s Middle Ages.
SCSI \'sko-ze\ in full Small Computer System Interface Once common standard for connecting peripheral devices (disks, modems, printers, etc.) to small and medium-sized computers. SCSI has given way to faster standards, such as Firewire and USB.
scuba diving Swimming done underwater with a self-contained underwater-breathing apparatus (scuba), as opposed to skin diving, which requires only a snorkel, goggles, and flippers. Scuba gear was invented by Jacques-Yves Cousteau and Emile Gagnan in 1943. Diving clubs formed quickly as the technology became widely available. Scuba diving is used in oceanography, in underwater exploration and salvage work, in the study of water pollution, and for recreation.
sculpin or bullhead or sea scorpion Any of about 300 species (family Cottidae) of inactive, bottom-dwelling fishes found principally in northern regions. Sculpins are slender and tapered and have one or more spines on the gill covers, large fanlike pectoral fins, and smooth or spiny skin. The head is usually wide and heavy. Most species live in shallow seawaters, some live in deeper waters, and others inhabit fresh water. The largest species grow to 2 ft (60 cm) long; the miller’s-thumb ( Cottus gobio), common in European lakes and rivers, is only about 4 in. (10 cm) long. Other species of Cottus are found in Asia and North America.
sculpture Three-dimensional art produced especially by forming hard or plastic materials into three-dimensional objects, usually by carving or modeling. The designs may be produced in freestanding objects (i.e., in the round), in relief, or in environments, and a variety of media may be used, including clay, wax, stone, metal, fabric, wood, plaster, rubber, and found objects. Materials may be carved, modeled, molded, cast, wrought, welded, sewn, or assembled and combined. Various forms of sculpture have been found in virtually every culture throughout history. Until the 20th century, sculpture was considered a representational art, but, begin¬ ning in the early 1900, nonrepresentational works were increasingly pro¬ duced. The scope of the term became much wider in the second half of the 20th century. Present-day sculptors use any materials and methods of manufacture that will serve their purposes, and so the art of sculpture can no longer be identified with any special materials or techniques. See also environmental sculpture; kinetic sculpture.
scurvy or vitamin C deficiency Nutritional disorder caused by defi¬ ciency of vitamin C. Deficiency interferes with tissue synthesis, causing swollen, bleeding gums; loose teeth; sore, stiff joints and legs; bleeding under the skin and in deep tissues; slow wound healing; and anemia. The scourge of sailors on long sea voyages, scurvy was recognized as diet- related in 1753, when James Lind showed that drinking citrus juice could cure and prevent it, leading to the concept of deficiency diseases. Full¬ blown scurvy is now rare, and adequate vitamin C usually cures even severe cases in days.
Scutari Vskti-ta-reV Lake Largest lake in the Balkan Peninsula. Located on the frontier between Montenegro (see Serbia and Montenegro) and Alba¬ nia, it has an area of 150 sq mi (390 sq km). It was formerly an arm of the Adriatic Sea. Steep mountains, plains, and marshland border the lake, as do many small villages that are noted for their old monasteries and fortresses.
Scylla and Charybdis \ , si-b...ko- , rib-dis\ In Greek mythology, two monsters that guarded the narrow passage through which Odysseus had to sail in his wanderings. These waters are now identified with the Strait of Messina. On one shore was Scylla, a monster with six snaky heads, who reached out of her cave to seize and devour six of Odysseus’ companions. On the opposite shore was Charybdis, the personification of a whirlpool, who drank down and belched forth the waters three times a day. The ship¬ wrecked Odysseus saved himself by clinging to a tree on the shore until his raft floated to the surface.
Scythian \'si-the-on\ Any member of a nomadic people of Iranian stock who migrated from Central Asia to southern Russia in the 8th-7th cen¬ tury bc. Fierce warriors, they were among the first expert horsemen, which enabled them to establish an empire from western Persia through Syria and Judaea to Egypt and to expel the Cimmerians from their territory in the Caucasus and north of the Black Sea. Although driven out of Anatolia by the Medes (see Media), they held territory from the Persian border into southern Russia; they repelled an invasion by the Persian Darius I c. 513 bc. Their civilization produced wealthy aristocrats (“Royal Scyths”),
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Scythian art ► sea level I 1709
whose graves held richly worked articles of gold and other precious mate¬ rials. The army consisted of freemen; on presentation of an enemy’s head, a soldier could share in the booty. They fought with double-curved bows, trefoil-shaped arrows, and Persian swords. Burial called for the sacrifice of the dead man’s wife and servants. In the 5th century bc the royal fam¬ ily intermarried with Greeks. The community fell to the Sarmatians in the 2nd century bc. See also Scythian art.
Scythian art Vsi-the-onV Decorative objects, mainly jewelry and trap¬ pings for horses, tents, and wagons, produced by nomadic Scythian tribes that roamed Central Asia and eastern Europe between the 7th century bc and the 2nd century ad. Also known as Steppes art, it largely features rep¬ resentations of real or mythical beasts worked in a wide variety of materials, including wood, leather, bone, applique felt, bronze, iron, sil¬ ver, gold, and electrum. Outstanding are gold stags about 12 in. (30 cm) long, their legs tucked under them, probably used as central ornaments on round shields.
SDI See Strategic Defense Initiative SDS See Students for a Democratic Society
Sea, Law of the International law codified in a treaty signed in 1982 covering the status and use of territorial waters, sea lanes, and ocean resources. Originally signed by 117 countries, the treaty had some 140 state parties by the early 21st century. The treaty defines territorial waters as those extending 12 nautical mi (22 km) beyond a country’s coast and gives to each country exclusive fishing and mining rights in waters extend¬ ing to 200 nautical mi (370 km) from its coast. See also high seas.