Barres, 1906.
H. ROGER-VIOLLET
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ished from court. In the French Revolution she was condemned as a counterrevolutionary and guillotined.
Barry, John (b. 1745, County Wexford, Ire.—d. Sept. 13, 1803, Phila¬ delphia, Pa., U.S.) Irish-born American naval officer. He immigrated to America in 1760 and was a merchant shipmaster out of Philadelphia at age 21. He outfitted the first American fleet in 1776, and as captain of a frigate he captured several British ships. He fought the last battle of the American Revolution in March 1783 in the Straits of Florida, where he defeated three British ships. After the war he was recalled to active ser¬ vice as senior captain of the new U.S. Navy. He was often called the “Father of the Navy” because he trained many future naval officers.
Barrymore family U.S. theatrical family. Maurice Barrymore (orig. Herbert Blythe; 1847-1905) made his stage debut in London before mov¬ ing to New York City (1875), where he adopted Barrymore as his stage name. He joined Augustin Daly’s company and in 1876 married Georgi- ana Drew, of the theatrical Drew family. Their eldest child, Lionel Barry¬ more (orig. Lionel Blythe; 1878-1954), became a leading Broadway actor in plays such as Peter Ibbetson (1917) and The Copperhead (1918), then moved to Hollywood in 1926, where he appeared in films such as A Free Soul (1931, Academy Award) and Grand Hotel (1932). Famous as a char¬ acter actor, he made some 200 films, including 15 Dr. Kildare pictures. His sister Ethel Barrymore (orig. Ethel Blythe; 1879-1959) appeared in London in Peter the Great (1898) and on Broadway in Captain Jinks of the Horse Marines (1901). She opened the New York theatre named for her in 1928 in The Kingdom of God and later starred in The Corn Is Green (1940). She appeared in more than 30 films, including None but the Lonely Heart (1944, Academy Award) and The Spiral Staircase (1946). Their brother John Barrymore (orig. John Blythe; 1882-1942) was acclaimed in plays such as Justice (1916), Richard III (1920), and especially Ham¬ let (1922). His films include Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1920) and Dinner at Eight (1933). An alcoholic, he was known for his flamboyant behav¬ iour. John’s granddaughter Drew Barrymore (b. 1975) first won notice at age seven in the film E.T. (1982).
barter Direct exchange of goods or services without the use of money or any other intervening medium of exchange. Barter is conducted either according to established rates of exchange or by bargaining. Barter is common among preliterate societies, particularly in those communities with some developed form of market. Goods may be bartered within a group as well as between groups, although gif exchange probably accounts for most intragroup trade, particularly in small and relatively simple soci¬ eties. See also currency.
Barth, John orig. John Simmons Barth, Jr. (b. May 27, 1930, Cambridge, Md., U.S.) U.S. writer. Barth grew up on Maryland’s eastern shore, the locale of much of his writing, and from 1953 he taught prin¬ cipally at Johns Hopkins University. Apart from the experimental pieces in Lost in the Funhouse (1968), his best-known works are the novels The Floating Opera (1956), The End of the Road (1958), The Sot-Weed Fac¬ tor (1960), Giles Goat-Boy (1966), and The Tidewater Tales (1987), most of which play with and parody traditional narrative forms, combining philosophical depth with biting satire and boisterous, often bawdy humour. In 2001 he published the experimental novel Coming Soon!!!: A Narrative, which was not well received.
Barth \'bart\, Karl (b. May 10, 1886, Basel, Switz.—d. Dec. 9/10, 1968, Basel) Swiss theologian. He studied at the Universities of Berlin, Tubin¬ gen, and Marburg, and in 1911-21 he was a pastor at Safenwil, Switz. The tragedy of World War I made him question the liberal theology of his teachers, rooted in post-Enlightenment ideas. With The Epistle to the Romans (1919) he inaugurated a radical turnaround in Protestant thought, initiating a trend toward neoorthodoxy. The work led to his appointment as professor at Gottingen (1921), Munster (1925), and Bonn (1930). He was a founder of the Confessing Church, which opposed the Nazi regime; when his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to Adolf Hitler cost him his chair at Bonn, he returned to Basel. He spoke at the opening of the World Council of Churches in 1948 and visited Rome following the Second Vat¬ ican Council.
Barthelme Vbart-ol-meV, Donald (b. April 7, 1931, Philadelphia, Pa., U.S.—d. July 23, 1989, Houston, Texas) U.S. writer. Barthelme worked as a journalist, journal editor, and museum director before his fiction began to be published. He is known for modernist “collages” marked by technical experimentation and melancholy gaiety. His story collections include Come Back, Dr. Caligari (1964), City Life (1970), Sixty Stories
(1981), and Overnight to Many Distant Cities (1983); his novels include Snow White (1967), The Dead Father (1975), Paradise (1986), and The King (1990). His brother Frederick (b. 1943) is also a novelist ( Second Marriage, 1984) and short-story writer {Moon Deluxe, 1983).
Barthes \'bart\, Roland (Gerard) (b. Nov. 12, 1915, Cherbourg, France—d. March 25, 1980, Paris) French social and literary critic. His early books examined the arbitrariness of the constructs of language and applied similar analyses to popular-culture phenomena. He analyzed mass culture in Mythologies (1957). On Racine (1963) set off a literary furor, pitting him against more traditional French literary scholars. His later contributions to SEMIOTICS included the even more radical S/Z (1970); The Empire of Signs (1970), his study of Japan; and other significant works that brought his theories wide (if belated) attention in the 1970s and helped establish structuralism as one of the leading intellectual movements of the 20th century. In 1976 he became the first person to hold the chair of literary semiology at the College de France.
Bartholdi \bar-'tol-de\, Frederic-Auguste (b. April 2, 1834, Col¬ mar, Alsace, Fr.—d. Oct. 4, 1904, Paris) French sculptor. He studied sculpture and painting in Paris. In 1865 he and several others conceived the idea for a monument to the Franco-American alliance of 1778. Begin¬ ning work in 1870, Bartholdi designed the huge statue that would come to be known as the “Statue of Liberty” (1875-86) and was able to see its construction through using funds he raised in both France and the U.S. While not as famous, his masterpiece is the Lion of Belfort (1871-80), carved out of the red sandstone of a hill overlooking Belfort in eastern France.
Bartholomaeus Vbar-.tol-o-'ma-osX (Anglicus) or Bartholomew the Englishman (fl. c. 1220^40) Franciscan encyclopedist. Though primarily interested in scripture and theology, in his 19-volume encyclo¬ pedia On the Properties of Things he covered all customary knowledge of his time and was the first to make readily available the views of Greek, Jewish, and Arabic scholars on medical and scientific subjects. The ency¬ clopedia was printed in English translation c. 1495.
Bartholomew, Saint (fl. 1st century ad —d. traditionally Albanopo- lis, Armenia; Western feast day August 24; date varies in Eastern churches) One of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. He is mentioned only briefly in the Gospels, and his Hebrew name may have been Nathanael bar Tolmai. By tradition he was a missionary to Ethiopia, Mesopotamia, Parthia (in modern Iran), Lycaonia (in modem Turkey), and Armenia. He was supposedly martyred at the command of the Armenian king Asty- ages, who had him flayed and beheaded.
Barthou \bar-'tii\, (Jean-) Louis (b. Aug. 25, 1862, Oloron-Sainte- Marie, France—d. Oct. 9, 1934, Marseille) French politician. Elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1889, he served in various conservative gov¬ ernments. He was appointed premier (1913) and secured the passage of a bill requiring three years’ compulsive military service. He represented France at the Conference of Genoa, entered the Senate, and became chair¬ man of the reparations commission. Named foreign minister in 1934, he was assassinated with King Alexander of Yugoslavia during the latter’s visit to France.