Sfax \'sfaks\ or Safaqis \s3-'fa-kis\ Port city (pop., 1994: 230,900), east-central Tunisia. Built on the site of two ancient settlements, the city grew as an Islamic trading centre. It was occupied by the Normans in the 12th century and by the Spanish in the 16th century, and later served as a stronghold of the Barbary Coast pirates. The town was bombarded by the French in 1881 prior to their occupation of Tunisia and again in World War II (1939-45), when it was a base for German forces until taken by the British in 1943. Tunisia’s second-largest city, it is a transportation hub and a major fishing port.
Sforim, Mendele Moykher See Mendele Moykher Sforim
Sforza \'sfort-sa\, Carlo, Count (b. Sept. 25, 1873, Montignoso di Lunigiana, Italy—d. Sept. 4, 1952, Rome) Italian diplomat. He entered the diplomatic service in 1896 and served in embassies worldwide. He served as minister for foreign affairs (1920-21) and as Italy’s ambassa¬ dor to France (1922), but he resigned after refusing to serve under Benito Mussolini. A strong antifascist, he lived in voluntary exile in Belgium until 1939 and in the U.S. (1940-43). He returned to Italy after World War II to serve in various government posts, including minister of foreign affairs
(1947-51).
Sforza, Francesco (b. July 23, 1401, San Miniato, Tuscany—d. March 8, 1466, Milan) Italian mercenary and duke of Milan (1450-66). He became condottiere of Florence in 1434 and defeated Milan twice (1438, 1440), then was hired by the Milanese to serve as captain general in their struggle to found a republic (1447). He later blockaded the city and seized control, becoming duke of Milan in 1450, and he allied with Florence to secure the Peace of Lodi (1454). See also Sforza family.
Sforza, Ludovico (b. July 27, 1452, Vigevano, Pavia, duchy of Milan—d. May 27, 1508, Loches, Toubrenne, France) Regent (1480-94) and duke of Milan (1494-98). The second son of Francesco Sforza, he was known as “the Moor” because of his dark complexion and black hair. He plotted to take over as regent for his young nephew. He made Milan supreme among the Italian states, and his patronage of scholars and art¬ ists such as Leonardo da Vinci made his court renowned in Europe. He bribed Maximilian I to declare him duke of Milan and fought to expel the French from Italy. After Louis XII conquered Milan (1498), Ludovico tried unsuccessfully to retake it (1500); he was captured and died in prison.
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1730 I Sforza family ► Shaftesbury
Sforza family Italian family that ruled Milan (1450-1535). The fam¬ ily began with the prosperous farmer and later condottiere leader Muzio Attendolo (1369-1424), who was given the nickname Sforza (“Force”). His illegitimate son Francesco Sforza became duke of Milan in 1450. Galeazzo Maria Sforza (1444-76) succeeded his father in 1466, and, though a despotic ruler, he introduced the cultivation of rice, built canals and encouraged commerce, and was a patron of the arts; he was assas¬ sinated by conspirators who vainly hoped to provoke a popular uprising. Gian Galeazzo Sforza (1469-94) succeeded his father in 1476 under the regency of his mother and uncle, Ludovico Sforza, who usurped the gov¬ ernment in 1481 and established Milan’s supremacy. After Ludovico was driven from power by Louis XII of France in 1499, his son Massimiliano Sforza (1493-1530) returned to rule briefly (1513-16) before yielding the duchy to France. Another son, Francesco Maria Sforza (1495-1535), returned after the French defeat to rule from 1522, until his death with¬ out heirs ended the ducal line in 1535. The duchy then passed to Charles V and the Habsburgs. Descendants of Sforza Secondo (an illegitimate son of Francesco Sforza) became the Counts Sforza and included the diplo¬ mat Carlo, Count Sforza.
SGML in full Standard Generalized Markup Language
Markup language for organizing and tagging elements of a document, including headings, paragraphs, tables, and graphics. The elements are marked according to their meaning and relationship to other elements rather than to the format of their presentation. The tagged elements can then be formatted in different ways according to the unique rules for dif¬ ferent applications. Readable by both humans and computer programs, SGML is usable in a wide range of applications, including print publish¬ ing, CD-ROMs, and database systems. Generic coding of electronic manuscripts was first proposed in the late 1960s; in 1969 an IBM team developed GML, which was adopted by the U.S. Internal Revenue Ser¬ vice and Department of Defense. In the late 1970s the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) established a committee to create SGML from GML; it was accepted by the International Organization for Standards in 1986. See also HTML, XML.
Shaanxi \'shan-'she\ or Shen-hsi conventional Shensi \'shen-'se\ Province (pop., 2002 est.: 36,740,000), north-central China. It is bordered by Shanxi, Henan, Hubei, Sichuan, and Gansu provinces, Chongqing municipality, and Ningxia and Inner Mongolia autonomous regions. It has an area of 75,600 sq mi (195,800 sq km). Its capital is Xi'an. Shaanxi has three distinct natural regions: the mountainous southern region, the cen¬ tral Wei River valley, and the northern upland plateau. The valley is espe¬ cially vulnerable to earthquakes. Its northern parts were some of the earliest settled in China, and the remains of ancient construction projects found there include part of the Great Wall. From 221 bc until the Tang dynasty, it was wealthy and the centre of much political activity. As its irrigation system deteriorated, the area declined. In the 13th century, under the Mongols, it assumed its present form as a province. Mao Zedong’s Long March ended here in 1935. Its ancient irrigation system has been rehabilitated in modern times, and the region is again a rich agricultural area. Crops include corn, winter wheat, fruits, tobacco, and cotton.
Shabbetai Tzevi Vsha-bo-.tl-tso-'veN (b. July 23, 1626, Smyrna, Otto¬ man Tur.—d. 1676, Dulcingo, Alb.) False Jewish Messiah. He studied the mystical learning of the Kabbala and at age 22 proclaimed himself the messiah. He traveled around the Levant, gaining both followers and enemies. With the support of powerful religious and political figures, his movement spread to parts of Europe and North Africa. In 1666, the year he was prophesied to bring about fire restoration of Israel, he was impris¬ oned by the Ottoman sultan and, under threat of torture, converted to Islam. His following largely fell away, though some remained faithful to him and strove to reconcile his claims with his seeming betrayal of Judaism.
Shackleton, Sir Ernest Henry (b. Feb. 15, 1874, Kilkea, County Kildare, Ire.—d. Jan. 5, 1922, Grytviken, South Georgia) British explorer. In 1901 he joined Robert Falcon Scott’s expedition to the Antarctic. He returned to Antarctica in 1908 and led a sledging party to within 97 mi (156 km) of the pole. In 1914 he led the British Trans-Antarctic Expe¬ dition, which planned to cross Antarctica via the South Pole. His expe¬ dition ship Endurance was caught in pack ice and drifted for 10 months before being crushed. Shackleton and his crew drifted on ice floes for another five months until they reached Elephant Island. He and five oth¬ ers sailed 800 mi (1,300 km) to South Georgia Island to get help, then he led four relief expeditions to rescue his men. Shackleton died on South Georgia at the outset of another Antarctic expedition.
shad Any of several saltwater food fishes of the herring family (Clu- peidae) that swim up rivers to spawn. Shad eggs (roe) are a delicacy in the U.S. Adult shad are toothless. The lower jaw of shad in the genus Alosa fits into a notch at the tip of the upper jaw. The American shad {A. sapidissima ), an Atlantic fish introduced into the Pacific, is a migratory plankton eater and a good game fish. The Allis (or Allice) shad (A. alosa ) of Europe is about 30 in. (75 cm) long and weighs about 8 lbs (3.6 kg). See also whitefish.
Shad well, Thomas (b. 1642?, Norfolk, Eng.—d. Nov. 19, 1692, Lon¬ don) English dramatist. One of the court wits after the Restoration (1660), he wrote 18 plays, of which his broad comedies of manners are the best remembered. Epsom-Wells (1672), his greatest success, played for nearly half a century. After his friendship with John Dryden ended over differ¬ ences in politics and dramatic techniques, both men produced satires attacking the other, Dryden’s (including the devastating MacFlecknoe), being the more memorable. In 1688 Shadwell succeeded Dryden as poet laureate and historiographer royal.