gram stain), non-spore-forming, stationary bacteria. S. dysenteriae, spread by contaminated water and food, causes the most severe dysentery because of its potent toxin, but other species may also be dysentery agents.
Shih-chia-chuang See Shijiazhuang
shih tzu Vshe-'dziA Breed of toy dog developed in Tibet from the Peking¬ ese and the Lhasa apso. Sturdily built and short-legged, it stands about 10 in. (26 cm) tall and weighs 18 lb (8 kg) or less. It is longer than it is tall and has a short muzzle, hanging ears, and heavily haired tail, which it carries over its back. Its long, dense coat may be any of several colours and falls over the eyes, forming a beard.
Shihuangdi or Shih Huang-ti Vshir-'hwaq-'deN orig. Zhao Zheng (b. c. 259 bc, Qin state, northwestern China—d. 210 bc, Hebei province) Founder of the Qin dynasty (221-207 bc). His father was king of Qin, which was regarded as barbarous by the central states of China but had developed a strong bureaucratic government under the philoso¬ phy of legalism (see Hanfeizi). Aided by Li Si, Zheng eliminated the other Chinese states until in 221 bc Qin ruled supreme. He proclaimed himself Shihuangdi (“First Sovereign Emperor”) and initiated reforms designed to create a fully centralized administration. He was interested in magic and alchemy, hoping for an elixir of immortality; his reliance on magi¬ cians was strongly condemned by Confucian scholars, many of whom he executed. The scholars also advocated a return to old feudal ways; their obstinacy led him to order the burning of all nonutilitarian books. Tradi¬ tional histories regarded him as the ultimate villain, cruel, uncultivated, and superstitious. Modern historians stress the endurance of his bureau¬ cratic and administrative structure. Though the Qin dynasty collapsed after his death, future dynasties adopted his structures. He was buried in a massive tomb with an army of more than 6,000 terra-cotta soldiers and horses. See also Qin tomb.
Shrite \'she-,it\ Member of the Shi'ite branch of Islam, which resulted from the first fitnah, or split, within the religion over leadership. Mem¬ bers of the political faction that supported ‘Ad, Muhammad’s son-in-law, as the Prophet’s heir after the murder of the third caliph, 'Uthman, the Shl'ites gradually became a religious movement after the murder of 'All. 'All’s followers insisted that a caliph, or imam, be a lineal descendant of 'All and his wife, Fajimah. Shl'ite legal tradition is distinct from the four major schools of thought in Sunnite Islam and is generally regarded as the most conservative. Though Shl'ites represent only about 10% of Mus¬ lims in the world, they are a majority in Iran and Iraq, and there are siz¬ able populations in Yemen, Syria, Lebanon, East Africa, Pakistan, and northern India. The largest subdivision is the Ithna ‘Ashariyyah, or Twelv¬ ers, who recognized 12 historical imams (including 'All); other subsects include the Isma'Iliyyah and the Zaydiyyah.
Shijiazhuang Vshi-'jya-'jwaqV or Shih-chia-chuang City (pop., 1999 est.: 1,338,796), capital of Hebei province, northeastern China. Located on the edge of the North China Plain at the foot of the Taihang Mountains, the site dates to pre-Han times (c. 206 bc). After it came under the Tang dynasty (7th-10th century ad), it was only a local market town. Its growth into one of China’s major cities began in 1905, when the rail¬ way reached the area, stimulating trade and agriculture. Other rail con¬ nections and an extensive road network established it as a communications centre. It developed into an industrial city with admin¬ istrative functions at the end of World War II. It is now one of China’s major industrial, cultural, and economic centres.
shikhara See sikhara
Shikoku \she-'k6-ku\ Smallest main island (pop., 2000 prelim.: 4,148,000) of Japan. It is located south of Honshu and east of Kyushu. Much of its 7,063 sq mi (18,292 sq km) is mountainous, and the popu¬ lation is concentrated in urban areas along the coast. Rice, barley, wheat, and mandarin oranges are among the island’s major crops. Industries include petroleum, textiles, paper, and fishing.
Shillong \shi-'loq\ City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 132,876), northeastern India. It has been an administrative centre since 1864, first as a district headquarters, later as the capital of Assam, and since 1972 as the capital of Meghalaya state. It was destroyed by an earthquake in 1897; completely rebuilt, it is now a resort area and an important agricultural trade centre.
Shilluk \shi-Tuk\ People living on the western bank of the Nile in The Sudan. They speak an Eastern Sudanic language of the Nilo-Saharan family and are sedentary agriculturalists who keep cattle, sheep, and goats.
Shetland sheepdog
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1740 I Shiloh ► shinty
Historically, they were united in a single tribal state headed by a divine king whose physical and ritual well-being was held to ensure the state’s prosperity. In addition to several classes of royalty, the Shilluk tradition¬ ally were divided into royal retainers, commoners, and slaves. See also Nilot.
Shiloh Vshl-l6\, Battle of (April 6-7, 1862) Second major engagement of the American Civil War. Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant, includ¬ ing William T. Sherman, camped on the Tennessee River at Pittsburg Land¬ ing, Tenn. (near Shiloh Church), in preparation for an offensive. Confederate forces under A.S. Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard attacked, surprising the Union troops and forcing their retreat, though Johnston was mortally wounded. A Union counterattack the next day regained the lost ground, and the Confederates withdrew to Corinth, Miss. Both sides claimed victory, but the battle was considered a Confederate defeat. Each side suffered about 10,000 casualties.
Shimabara \she-'ma-ba-ra\ Rebellion (1637-38) In Japanese his¬ tory, last major uprising against Tokugawa rule until the 1860s. A large contingent of peasants, supported by ronin (masterless samurai), rebelled in protest of heavy taxation. After initial success, the uprising was crushed, and an estimated 37,000 rebels were killed. Because many of the peasants were converts to Christianity, their rebellion strengthened gov¬ ernment determination to isolate Japan from foreign influence and vigor¬ ously enforce its proscription of all Christian beliefs and activities.
Shim la formerly Simla City (pop., 2001 prelim.: 142,161), capital of Himachal Pradesh state, northwestern India. The city was built by the British after the Gurkha War (1814-16), on a ridge of the Himalayan foothills some 7,100 ft (2,200 m) high. It served as the British summer capital (1865-1939), and as the headquarters of Punjab (1947-53). Because of its cool climate and scenic setting, it is one of India’s most popular hill resorts.
shimmy See chemin de fer
Shinano \she-'na-no\ River River, Honshu, Japan. The country’s long¬ est river, at 228 mi (367 km), it rises at the foot of Mount Kobushi and flows north-northeast to enter the Sea of Japan (East Sea) at Niigata. It has long served as an inland waterway and has numerous river ports.
Shinbutsu shugo Vshen-.but-su-'shu-.goX Japanese amalgamation of Buddhism and Shinto. The hybridization began on Buddhism’s appearance in Japan (mid-6th century ad), and the practice of building Shinto and Buddhist shrines near each other developed in the 8th century. To sepa¬ rate the two religions, the government issued an edict in 1868 ordering Buddhist priests connected with Shinto shrines either to be reordained as Shinto priests or to return to lay life. Because the state religion was Shinto, the government abolished Buddhist ceremonies in the imperial household. Nevertheless, most Japanese incorporate elements of both religions in their lives, celebrating life-related events (birth, coming of age, marriage) at Shinto shrines but holding Buddhist funeral rites and memorial services.
shinden-zukuri \ , shen-,den-zu- , ku-re\ Japanese architectural style of mansion-estates constructed in the Heian period (794-1185). The form con¬ sisted of a shinden (central building) to which subsidiary structures were connected by corridors. The shinden faced south on an open court, across which was a pond garden. The eastern and western tainoya, or subsidiary living quarters, were attached by watadono (corridors), from which narrow corridors extended south, ending in small pavilions. This layout resulted in a U-shaped arrangement around the court. See also shoin-zukuri.