Shklovsky Vshklof-skeV Viktor (Borisovich) (b. Jan. 24, 1893, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Dec. 8,1984, Moscow) Russian critic and novelist. From 1914 he was a major voice in the critical movement called Russian Formalism, to which he contributed the concept of ostranenie, or “making it strange.” He argued that literature is a collection of devices that force read¬ ers to view the world afresh by presenting old ideas or mundane experi¬ ences in new, unusual ways. His earlier works include the acclaimed memoir A Sentimental Journey (1923) and The Technique of the Writer’s Craft (1928). Official Soviet displeasure with Formalism later obliged him to write within the constraints of Socialist Realism, and he published histori¬ cal novels, film criticism, and highly praised literary studies.
shock State in which the circulatory system fails to supply enough blood to peripheral tissues to meet basic requirements. Symptoms—weak, rapid pulse; low blood pressure; and cold, sweaty skin—are not all present in every case. Causes include low blood volume, caused by bleeding or fluid loss from burns or dehydration; inability of the heart to pump enough blood, due to heart attack, pulmonary embolism, or cardiac tamponade (compression of the heart by fluid in the membrane around it); and blood¬ vessel dilation as a result of septicemia, allergy (including anaphylaxis), or drugs. All result in reduced capillary blood flow; reflexes increase heart rate and constrict small blood vessels to protect the blood supply to essen¬ tial organs. Without treatment of the underlying cause, these mechanisms fail; since the cause is not always clear, cases tend to require different and occasionally contradictory treatment (e.g., intravenous fluids can save the life of a patient with massive blood loss but can overload a weakened heart).
shock absorber Device for controlling unwanted motion of a spring- mounted vehicle. On an automobile, the springs act as a cushion between the axles and the body and reduce the shocks produced by a rough road surface. Since some combinations of road surface and car speed may result in excessive up-and-down motion of the car body, shock absorbers—which today are hydraulic devices that oppose both compres¬ sion and stretching of the springs—slow down and reduce the magnitude of these vibratory motions. See also damping.
shock therapy See electroconvulsive therapy
Shockley, William B(radford) (b. Feb. 13, 1910, London, Eng.—d. Aug. 12, 1989, Palo Alto, Calif., U.S.) U.S. engineer and teacher. He received a Ph.D. from Harvard University. He joined Bell Labs in 1936, where he began experiments that led to the development of the transis¬ tor. During World War II he was director of research for the U.S. Navy’s Antisubmarine Warfare Operations Research Group; later (1954-55) he was deputy director of the Defense Department’s Weapons Systems Evaluation Group. He established the Shockley Semiconductor Labora¬ tory at Beckman Instruments in 1955. In 1956 he shared a Nobel Prize with John Bardeen and Walter H. Brattain for their work at Bell Labs on the transistor. He taught at Stanford University (1958-74). From the late 1960s he earned notoriety for his outspoken and critical views on the intellectual capacity of blacks.
shoe Outer covering for the foot, usually of leather, with a stiff or thick sole and heel, and generally reaching no higher than the ankle (unlike a boot). Early examples from Mesopotamia were moccasinlike wrap¬
arounds of leather; not until the Hellenistic Age did shoes become luxu¬ rious. The Romans developed shoes fitted for the left and right feet, and differentiated according to sex and rank. In the 14th—15th century, shoes became extremely long and pointed, the points attaining a length of 18 in. (45 cm) or more. In the 16th century, the toes became extremely broad, like a duck’s bill. In the 17th century, shoes had moderately high heels and were often decorated with large rosettes of lace and ribbons, which gave way to gold or silver buckles in the 18th century. The first shoe fac¬ tory opened in 1760, in Massachusetts, but not until the development of modern machinery in the 19th century were shoes made quickly and inexpensively.
Shoemaker, Bill or Willie Shoemaker in full William Lee Shoemaker (b. Aug. 19, 1931, Fabens, Texas, U.S.—d. Oct. 12, 2003, San Marino, Calif.) U.S. jockey. He began his racing career in 1949. He rode in 24 Kentucky Derbies and won four; he also won the Belmont Stakes five times and the Preakness twice. He rode more than 8,800 win¬ ners in his 41-year career, which ended in 1989, and he is considered the greatest American jockey of the second half of the 20th century.
Shoemaker-Levy 9 Comet that collided with t he planet Jupiter in July 1994, discovered by Carolyn and Eugene Shoemaker and David Levy 16 months earlier. The comet was tom apart into more than 20 fragments during a close encounter with Jupiter in July 1992, resulting in a “string of pearls” that collided sequentially with Jupiter two years later over a period of a week, leaving dark spots larger than Earth at their impact sites in Jupiter’s atmosphere.
shden \'sho-'en\ In Japan (c. 8th—15th century), a private, tax-free, often autonomous estate. As the shden increased in numbers, they undermined the political and economic power of the central government and contrib¬ uted to the growth of powerful local clans. Landowners would commend their parcels of land to powerful families or religious institutions with tax-free status, thereby obtaining that status for themselves. All people connected with the land—the powerful patron, the owner, and the estate manager—had rights to part of the income from the land. During the Kamakura period (1192-1333), the shogunate (military government) asserted authority over the shden by inserting its own stewards ( MO ) into each estate to collect taxes. During Japan’s Warring States period, the shden gave way to consolidated landholdings controlled by daimyo (domain lords). See also samurai.
shogi Vsho-ge\ Strategic board game for two players that evolved in Japan from the 8th to the 12th century. Although often called Japanese chess in the West, shogi is played with a board (9 x 9), pieces (flat, wedge-shaped tiles, all of one colour, with rank given by text on each side), and rules that are completely unlike those of chess. Its most unique feature is known as the drop, whereby a captured piece can be placed on an empty square, subject to certain restrictions. Most pieces are promoted to another piece, indicated by flipping its tile, after reaching particular regions of the board. Ownership of each piece is indicated by the direc¬ tion of the wedge.
shogun Vsh6-gon\ Japanese "barbarian-quelling generalis¬ simo" In Japanese history, a military ruler. The title was first used dur¬ ing the Heian period, when it was occasionally bestowed on a general after a successful campaign. In 1185 Minamoto Yoritomo gained military con¬ trol of Japan; seven years later he assumed the title of shogun and formed the first bakufu, or shogunate (see Kamakura period). Later Kamakura sho¬ guns lost real power to the Hojo family while remaining rulers in name. Ashikaga Takauji received the title of shogun in 1338 and established the Ashikaga shogunate (see Muromachi period), but his successors enjoyed even less control over Japan than had the Kamakura shoguns, and the country gradually fell into civil war (see Onin War). Tokugawa Ieyasu’s shogunate (see Tokugawa period) proved the most durable, but the Japa¬ nese penchant for titular rulers prevailed, and in time a council of elders from the main branches of the Tokugawa clan ruled from behind the scenes. Since the title of shogun ultimately came from the emperor, he became a rallying point for those who brought down the shogunate in the Meiji Restoration.