spirits See distilled liquor
spiritual In North American white and black folk music, an English- language folk hymn. White spirituals derived variously, notably from the “lining out” of psalms, dating from at least the mid-17th century. Where congregations could not read, a leader intoned the psalm one line at a time, alternating with the congregation’s singing of each line to a famil¬ iar melody; the tune, sung slowly, was ornamented with passing notes.
Spiraea
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spiritualism ► spoils system I 1803
turns, and other graces. A second source was the singing of hymns set to borrowed melodies, often secular folk tunes. Themes included going home to the promised land and gaining ground against sin; typical refrains were “Roll, Jordan” and “Glory Hallelujah.” The songs survive in oral tradition in isolated areas and also in the form of shape-note singings. Afri¬ can American spirituals developed in part from white rural folk hymnody but differ greatly in voice quality, vocal effects, rhythm, and type of rhyth¬ mic accompaniment. They were sung not only in worship but also as work songs, and the text imagery often reflects concrete tasks. Like the white gospel song, the modem African American gospel song derives from the spiritual.
spiritualism Belief that the souls of the dead can make contact with the living, usually through a medium or during abnormal mental states such as trances. The basis of spiritualism is the conviction that spirit is the essence of life and that it lives on after the body dies. A medium is a person sensitive to vibrations from the spirit world, who may hold meet¬ ings known as seances in order to seek messages from spirits. A “control” is a spirit that gives messages to the human medium, who in turn gives them to other people. Spirits are also thought to manifest themselves through such means as rapping or levitating objects. Some spiritualists claim powers of paranormal healing. Scientific study of spiritualist phe¬ nomena has been the focus of the Society for Psychical Research, founded in Britain in 1882. See also theosophy.
spirochete Vspl-r3-,ket\ Any of an order (Spirochaetales) of spiral¬ shaped bacteria. Some are serious pathogens for humans, causing such diseases as syphilis, yaws, and relaps¬ ing fever. Spirochetes are gram¬ negative (see gram stain) and motile.
They are unique in that their flagella, which number between two and more than 200 per organism, are con¬ tained within the cell. Most spiro¬ chetes are found in a liquid environment (e.g., mud and water, blood and lymph). Several species are borne by lice and ticks, which transmit them to humans.
spirulina \,spir-u-'le-n3\ Any cyanobacteria in the genus Spirulina.
A traditional food source in parts of Africa and Mexico, spirulina is an exceptionally rich source of vitamins, minerals, and protein, and one of the few nonanimal sources of vitamin B 12 . It is now being widely stud¬ ied for its possible antiviral, anticancer, antibacterial, and antiparasitic properties, and has been used for such medical conditions as allergies, ulcers, anemia, heavy-metal poisoning, and radiation poisoning. It is also used in weight-loss programs.
Spitfire or Supermarine Spitfire British fighter aircraft in World War II. A low-wing monoplane first flown in 1936, it was adopted by the RAF in 1938. At that time one of the war’s fastest single-seat fighters, it was used effectively during the Battle of Britain. Later models allowed it to serve as a fighter-bomber and a photoreconnaissance plane. The 1938 version had a top speed of about 360 mph (580 kph) and was armed with eight .303-in. (7.7-mm) machine guns. The Spitfire XIV, one of the last models of the war, had a ceiling of 40,000 ft (12,200 m) and a top speed of 440 mph (710 kph). The RAF retired its last Spitfires in 1954.
Spitsbergen Main island within the Svalbard archipelago, Norway. Spitsbergen lies 360 mi (580 km) north of the Norwegian mainland in the Arctic Ocean. It was formerly known as West Spitsbergen. The terrain is mountainous, and most of the island is covered with glaciers. It is also deeply indented by fjords. Spitsbergen has extensive coal deposits.
Spitteler Vshpit-o-lorV Carl (b. April 24, 1845, Liestal, Switz.—d. Dec. 29, 1924, Lucerne) Swiss poet. He was a private tutor in Russia and Fin¬ land before he wrote his first great poetic work, the mythical epic Prometheus und Epimetheus (1881). His second great work was the epic The Olympic Spring (1900-05), in which he found full scope for bold invention and vividly expressive power. Late in life he rewrote his first epic as Prometheus the Long-Suffering (1924). Though known for his pessimistic yet heroic verse, he also wrote lyrical poems, stories, novels, and essays. He received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1919.
spittlebug or froghopper Any of some 2,000 species of hopping insects (family Cercopidae, order Homoptera) with whitish nymphs that use a special abdominal valve to aerate an anal fluid secretion. The result¬ ing frothy spittle protects the nymphs from enemies and desiccation. Adults are less than 0.6 in. (1.5 cm) long. The meadow spittlebug ( Philae- nus leucophthalmus ), of Europe and North America, resembles a frog and is a powerful leaper. It feeds extensively on clover and alfalfa, causing severe stunting that can result in the loss of up to 50% of a crop. Some African species occur in such enormous numbers that their spittle drips from tree branches like rain.
spitz Any of several northern dogs, including the chow chow, Pomera¬ nian, and Samoyed, characterized by a dense, long coat, erect pointed ears, and a tail that curves over the back. In the U.S., the name is often given to any small, white, long-haired dog; it is also used for the American Eskimo dog. European breeds include the Finnish spitz, with a bright red¬ dish brown coat, and the Lapland spitz, which has a white, brown, or blackish coat.
Spitz, Mark (Andrew) (b. Feb. 10, 1950, Modesto, Calif., U.S.) U.S. swimmer. He swam in college for Indiana University. At the 1968 Olym¬ pic Games he won two gold medals in team relay races. In the 1972 Olympics he won four individual men’s events (setting world records in all four) and three team events (one world record); Spitz’s feat of win¬ ning seven gold medals in a single Olympic Games remains unmatched.
spleen Lymphoid organ, located in the left side of the abdomen behind the stomach. The spleen is the primary filtering element for the blood, and it is a storage site for red blood cells (erythrocytes) and platelets. It is one of four places where reticuloendothelial cells are found (see reticu¬ loendothelial system). Two types of tissue, red pulp and white pulp, are intermixed. The white pulp is lymphoid tissue containing lymphocyte pro¬ duction centres. The red pulp is a network of channels filled with blood where most of the filtration occurs and is the major site of destruction of deteriorating erythrocytes and recycling of their hemoglobin. Both contain cells (see leukocyte) that remove foreign material and initiate an antibody- producing process. The spleen becomes enlarged in some infections. Its rupture in high-impact injuries may require surgical removal, which leaves the patient more susceptible to overwhelming infection.
Split ancient Spalatum Seaport (pop., 2001: 188,694), Dalmatia, Croatia. The Romans established the colony of Salonae nearby in 78 bc, and the emperor Diocletian lived at Split until his death in ad 313. After the Avars sacked the town in 615, the inhabitants built a new town within Diocletian’s 7-acre (3-hectare) palace compound; this “old town” has been continuously inhabited since that time. Split came under Byzantine rule in the 9th century, shifted to Venetian control in 1420, and was held by Austria in the 18th and 19th centuries. It came under Yugoslavian rule in 1918, finally becoming part of independent Croatia in 1992. The port facilities were destroyed in World War II, but the old city was little- damaged, and repairs were subsequently made. Split is a commercial, educational, and tourist centre. Collectively with the historic royal resi¬ dences, fortifications, and churches in the city, the palace was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1979.