studio system System whereby U.S. movie companies controlled all aspects of production, distribution, and exhibition. In the 1920s film stu¬ dios such as Paramount and MGM acquired theatre chains to strengthen their vertical control of the industry, and Warner Brothers, RKO, and Twentieth Century-Fox built similar empires soon thereafter. Studio heads exerted control over the types of movies to be made and the directors and actors to be hired; only a few directors maintained some independent control over their films. The studio system also developed the “star sys¬ tem,” by which certain actors and actresses were groomed for stardom, with studio executives choosing their roles, publicizing their glamorized offscreen lives, and keeping them under control through long contracts. The system declined after a 1948 Supreme Court decision forced the large studios to sell their theatre chains and increasing competition from tele¬ vision forced studios to limit their staffs, and by the 1960s it had effec¬ tively ended.
stupa Monument erected in memory of the Buddha or a Buddhist saint, often marking a sacred spot, com¬ memorating an event, or housing a relic. Stupas are architectural sym¬ bols of the Buddha’s death. A simple stupa may consist of a circular earth¬ enware base supporting a massive solid dome from which projects an umbrella, symbolizing protection.
This basic design is the inspiration for other types of Buddhist monu¬ ments, including pagodas, seen throughout Asia. Worship consists of walking clockwise around a stupa.
Many important stupas have become places of PILGRIMAGE.
sturgeon Any of about 20 species (family Acipenseridae) of large, primitive fishes that live mainly in southern Russia, Ukraine, and North America. Most species live in the sea and ascend rivers to spawn; a few live permanently in fresh water. Four tactile barbels near the toothless mouth detect invertebrates and small fishes on the mud bottom. Sturgeon flesh and eggs, or roe (caviar), are sold for food. The swim bladder is used in isin¬ glass, a gelatin. The Baltic sturgeon (Acipenser sturio) and several other species are endangered. The Atlantic sturgeon (A. oxyrhynchus), however, is common along the eastern coast of North America and generally is about 10 ft (3 m) long and weighs about 500 lb (225 kg). See also beluga.
Sturges Vstar-jssV Preston orig. Edmond Preston Biden (b.
Aug. 29, 1898, Chicago, Ill., U.S.—d. Aug. 6, 1959, New York, N.Y.) U.S. film director. Initially a playwright, he wrote the Broadway hits Strictly Dishonorable (1929) and Child of Manhattan (1931). After mov¬ ing to Hollywood, he became a noted screenwriter and won an Academy Award for The Great McGinty (1940), the first film he directed. He went on to write and direct distinctive satirical comedies such as The Lady Eve (1941), Sullivan’s Travels (1941), The Palm Beach Story (1941), The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek (1944), Hail the Conquering Hero (1944), and Unfaithfully Yours (1948), characterized by their witty dialogue, rapid pace, and memorable minor characters.
Sturm und Drang X.shturm-unt-'draq, .sturm-ont-'draqX German "storm and stress" German literary movement of the latter half of the 18th century characterized by a revolt against what the writers saw as the Enlightenment cult of rationalism and the sterile imitation of French literature. It exalted nature, intuition, impulse, instinct, emotion, fancy, and inborn genius as the wellsprings of literature. Influenced by Jean- Jacques Rousseau, Johann Gottfried Herder, and others, it took its name from the title of a play by Friedrich von Klinger (1752-1831). Dramatic works were the movement’s most characteristic product. Its most gifted representatives were Friedrich Schiller and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, whose Sorrows of Young Werther (1774) epitomizes its spirit.
Sturtevant Vstort-o-vonA, Alfred (Henry) (b. Nov. 21, 1891, Jack¬ sonville, Ill., U.S.—d. April 5, 1970, Pasadena, Calif.) U.S. geneticist. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University and taught principally at California Institute of Technology (1928-70). In 1912 he developed a technique for mapping the location of specific genes of the chromosomes in Drosophila. He later proved that crossing-over (the exchange of genes between chromosomes) could be prevented in Drosophila. He was one of the first to warn against the hazards of fallout as a consequence of nuclear bomb testing.
Sturzo Ystiirt-soX, Luigi (b. Nov. 26, 1871, Caltagirone, Sicily—d. Aug. 8, 1959, Rome, Italy) Italian priest and political leader. Ordained a priest in 1894, he earned a doctorate in Rome, then returned to his native Sic¬ ily to help the oppressed miners and peasants. As mayor of Caltagirone (1905-20), he built community housing and other public works. In 1919 he founded the Italian Popular Party and became its political secretary. Refusing to support Benito Mussolini, he went into exile in 1924. He returned in 1946, when his political movement was revived as the Chris¬ tian Democratic Party. In 1952 he was appointed senator for life. He wrote several works of Christian social philosophy, including Church and State (1939) and Italy and the Coming World (1945).
stuttering or stammering or dysphemia \dis-'fe-me-9\ Speech defect affecting the rhythm and fluency of speech, with involuntary rep¬ etition of sounds or syllables and intermittent blocking or prolongation of sounds, syllables, and words. Stutterers consistently have trouble with words starting with consonants, first words in sentences, and multisylla¬ ble words. Stuttering has a psychological, not a physiological, basis, tend¬ ing to appear in children pressured to speak fluently in public. In earlier times, stutterers were subjected to often torturous efforts to cure them. Today it is known that about 80% recover without treatment, usually by early adulthood. This probably results from increased self-esteem, accep¬ tance of the problem, and consequent relaxation. See also speech therapy.
Stuttgart \'shtut-,gart\ City (pop., 2002 est.: city, 587,152; urban agglom., 2,529,675), southwestern Germany. Located on the Neckar River, Stuttgart was originally a 10th-century stud farm. It became a town in the 13th century and passed to the counts of Wurttemberg, serving as their capital until the 19th century. The Thirty Years' War, French invasions in the 17th century, and heavy bombing during World War II took a toll on the city. Many historic buildings have been rebuilt, including the 13th- century castle. It is a cultural, transportation, industrial, and publishing centre. The University of Stuttgart was founded in 1829.
Stuyvesant Vsti-vo-sontV, Peter (b. c. 1592, Scherpenzeel, Friesland, Neth.—d. February 1672, near New York, N.Y.) Dutch colonial governor. In 1643 he became director of the Dutch West India Co.’s Caribbean colonies and in 1645 director general of all Dutch possessions in North America, including New Netherland and the Caribbean. He arrived in New Amsterdam (later New York City) in 1647 and soon faced the burgh¬ ers’ demands for self-government. He established a municipal govern¬ ment but continued to control it. He settled the boundary with Connecticut (1650), expelled the Swedes from New Sweden on the Delaware River,
Stupa III and its single gateway, San- chi, Madhya Pradesh state, India
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1836 I sty ► submarine
and incorporated the colony into Dutch territory (1655). Incursions from the New England colonies and a squadron sent by Charles II forced him to surrender New Netherland to the British (1664).
sly or hordeolum \h6r-'de-9-bm\ Infection of an eyelid gland. An external sty results from infection of a sebaceous gland at the edge of the eyelid; tears flow and the eye feels tender, as if something is in it. The sty reddens and swells. Warm compresses help it break sooner. An inter¬ nal sty is caused by infection of a meibomian gland under the eyelid lin¬ ing. More painful than an external sty, it usually breaks through the inner lining of the lid when it discharges and may leave a painless cyst (cha¬ lazion) at the site. See also boil.