supply-side economics Theory that focuses on influencing the sup¬ ply of labour and goods, using tax cuts and benefit cuts as incentives to work and produce goods. It was expounded by the U.S. economist Arthur Laffer (b. 1940) and implemented by Pres. Ronald Reagan in the 1980s. Supporters point to the economic growth of the 1980s as proof of its effi¬ cacy; detractors point to the massive federal deficits and speculation that accompanied that growth.
suprarenal gland See adrenal gland
Supremacy, Act of (1534) English act of Parliament that recognized Henry VIII as the “Supreme Head of the Church of England.” The act also required an oath of loyalty from English subjects that recognized his mar¬ riage to Anne Boleyn. It was repealed in 1555 under Mary I, but in 1559 Parliament adopted a new Act of Supremacy during the reign of Elizabeth I.
Suprematism First movement of pure geometrical abstraction in art, introduced in Russia c. 1913. Originated by Kazimir Malevich and dissemi¬ nated by El Lissitzky and the Bauhaus school, it had far-reaching influence on Western art and design. Malevich aimed to convey the “supremacy of feeling in art,” which he believed could be expressed through the simplest of visual forms. He exhibited the first Suprematist compositions in 1915, the year he issued the Suprematist manifesto. The purest embodiment of Suprematist ideals can be seen in his White on White series (1917-18).
Supreme Court of the United States Final court of appeal in the U.S. judicial system and final interpreter of the Constitution of the United States. The Supreme Court was created by the Constitutional Convention of 1787 as the head of a federal court system, though it was not formally established until Congress passed the Judiciary Act in 1789. It was granted authority to act in cases arising under the Constitution, laws, or treaties of the U.S.; in controversies to which the U.S. is a party; in controver¬ sies between states or between citizens of different states; in cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; and in cases affecting ambassadors or other ministers or consuls. Its size, which is set by Congress, varied between 6 and 10 members before being set at 9 in 1869. Justices are appointed by the president but must be confirmed by the Senate. The court has exercised the power of judicial review since 1803, when it first declared part of a law unconstitutional in Marburyw. Madison, though the power is not explicitly granted to it by the Constitution. Though the court can sometimes serve as a trial court through its original jurisdiction, relatively few cases reach the court in this manner; most cases arise by appeal or by certiorari. Among the most important doctrinal sources used by the Supreme Court have been the commerce, due-process, and equal-protection clauses of the Constitution. It also has often ruled on controversies involv¬ ing civil liberties (see civil liberty), including freedom of speech and the right of privacy. Much of its work consists of clarifying, refining, and testing the Constitution’s philosophic ideals and translating them into working principles.
Supremes U.S. pop-soul vocal trio. The original Supremes—Diana Ross (byname of Diane Earle; b. 1944), Mary Wilson (b. 1944), and Flo¬ rence Ballard (1943-76)—began recording for Motown (as The Primettes) on graduating from high school in Detroit, Mich. Their long string of Motown hits in the mid-1960s, many written by Brian and Eddie Holland and Lamont Dozier, began with “Where Did Our Love Go?” and included “Baby Love” and “Stop! In the Name of Love.” In 1966 Bal¬ lard was replaced with Cindy Birdsong (b. 1939). Ross left the Supremes in 1969, and Wilson left in 1977. Ballard died in relative poverty of car¬ diac arrest. Ross’s highly successful solo career included film roles (nota¬ bly in Lady Sings the Blues, 1972) and a free 1983 Central Park concert that drew an audience of record-setting size.
Sur See Tyre
Surabaya \ 1 sur-3-'bI-3\ Seaport city (pop., 1995 est.: 2,701,000), north¬ eastern coast of Java, Indonesia. It is Indonesia’s second-largest city and has been eastern Java’s chief trading center since the 14th century. The Dutch gained control in the 18th century and built their main East Indies naval base there. Occupied by the Japanese in World War II, it suffered
heavy damage; it was damaged again during Indonesia’s war for inde¬ pendence (1945—49). It is the site of Indonesia’s main naval base and a naval college, and of Airlangga University (1954).
surah or sura Any chapter of the Qur’an. According to Muslim belief, each of the 114 surahs, which vary in length from several lines (known as ayahs) to several pages, encompasses one or more divine revelations of Muhammad. All but three lines are in the form of a direct address from God. The tone of each varies but is generally moralistic, demanding obe¬ dience to a transcendent but compassionate God. Except for the opening surah, known as fdtihah (the “opening”), they are arranged in descend¬ ing order of length and numbered serially. They carry conventional names (e.g., Cow, Spider, Blood Clot) deriving from some image contained in them that is not necessarily indicative of their meaning or theme.
Surat Vsur-st, s3-'rat\ City (pop., 2001: 2,433,835), southeastern Gujarat state, west-central India. It is near the mouth of the Tapti River and the Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay). A major seaport from the 16th century, it was conquered by the Mughals in 1573 and was twice sacked by the Marathas in the 17th century. It became a centre for textile manufacturing and ship¬ building. The British established their first factory (trading post) in India there c. 1612, marking the beginning of the British imperial presence in India. The city declined in the 18th century but prospered again with the opening of India’s railways. Surat’s cottons, silks, brocades, and objects of gold and silver are still famous.
surface In geometry, a two-dimensional collection of points (flat sur¬ face), a three-dimensional collection of points whose cross section is a curve (curved surface), or the boundary of any three-dimensional solid. In general, a surface is a continuous boundary dividing a three- dimensional space into two regions. For example, the surface of a sphere separates the interior from the exterior; a horizontal plane separates the half-plane above it from the half-plane below. Surfaces are often called by the names of the regions they enclose, but a surface is essentially two- dimensional and has an area, while the region it encloses is three- dimensional and has a volume. The attributes of surfaces, and in particular the idea of curvature, are investigated in differential geometry.
surface Outermost layer of a material or substance. Because the par¬ ticles (atoms or molecules) on the surface have nearest neighbours beside and below but not above, the physical and chemical properties of a sur¬ face differ from those of the bulk material; surface chemistry is thus a branch of physical chemistry. The growth of crystals, the actions of cata¬ lysts and detergents, and the phenomena of adsorption, surface tension, and capillarity are aspects of behaviour at surfaces. The appearance of the sur¬ face, whether achieved with electroplating, paint, oxidation-reduction, bleaching (see bleach), or another means, is aesthetically important.
surface integral In calculus, the integral of a function of several vari¬ ables calculated over a surface. For functions of a single variable, definite integrals are calculated over intervals on the x-axis and result in areas. For functions of two variables, the simplest double integrals are calculated over rectangular regions and result in volumes. More generally, an integral cal¬ culated over a plane or curved surface results in a surface integral repre¬ senting a volume, though it also has many nongeometric applications.