Tokyo, University of State-financed university in Tokyo, the largest and most prestigious university in Japan. It was founded in 1877 and modeled on Western universities. It was destroyed in the great earthquake and fire of 1923 and reorganized following World War II. Today it has faculties of agriculture, economics, education, engineering, law, letters, medicine, pharmacology, and science, as well as a college of arts and sci¬ ences and a graduate school. Among its many research units are centres for the study of molecular and cellular biology, earthquakes, solid-state physics, cosmic radiation, oceanography, and Asian culture.
Tokyo Bay Inlet, western Pacific Ocean. Located off the east-central coast of Honshu, Japan, it is about 30 mi (48 km) long and 20 mi (32 km) wide. It provides a spacious harbour area for several Japanese cities, including Tokyo, Yokohama, and Kawasaki. A highway connecting Kawasaki with Kisarazu (pop., 2000: 122,766) on the opposite side of the bay was opened in 1997; it includes a bridge and an undersea tunnel that is 5.9 mi (9.5 km) long.
Tokyo Rose orig. Ikuko Toguri (b. July 4, 1916, Los Angeles, Calif., U.S.) U.S. broadcaster. She was visiting Japan when she was stranded at the outbreak of World War II. In 1943 she began radio announcing for a propaganda program beamed at U.S. troops, and eventually she became one of 13 women announcers, all native speakers of American English, collectively known as Tokyo Rose. After the war she was convicted of treason and served six years in a U.S. prison. Mitigating information later came to light, and she was pardoned in 1977.
Tokyo Stock Exchange Main stock market of Japan, located in Tokyo. It opened in 1878 to provide a market for the trading of govern¬ ment bonds newly issued to former samurai. Government bonds and gold and silver currencies initially formed the bulk of trade on the exchange, but the trading of stocks came to predominate by the 1920s and ’30s. It was closed from 1945 to 1949, when it opened after being reorganized by the occupying U.S. authorities. Today it accounts for more than 90% of all securities transactions in Japan, and it is one of the world’s largest marketplaces for securities. The Nikkei index is the key stock-market index in Tokyo.
Toland Vto-bndV, Gregg (b. May 29, 1904, Charleston, Ill., U.S.—d. Sept. 28, 1948, Hollywood, Calif.) U.S. cinematographer. He got his start in the film industry at the age of 15, working as an office boy at the Fox studio, and he soon became a cameraman, working for Samuel Goldwyn and others in the 1930s and ’40s. As director of photography for Dead End (1937), Wuthering Heights (1939, Academy Award), The Grapes of Wrath (1940), Citizen Kane (1941), and The Best Years of Our Lives (1946), he was noted for his brilliant use of chiaroscuro and his deep-
focus camera work. He codirected the war documentary December 7th (1943, Academy Award) with John Ford.
Toledo City (pop., 2000: 313,619), northwestern Ohio, U.S. It is the principal Great Lakes port, located at the southwestern end of Lake Erie. The area was opened to white settlement after the 1794 Battle of Fallen Timbers. Formed by the consolidation of two villages in 1833, it figured in the so-called Toledo War of 1835-36, a bloodless dispute between Michigan Territory and Ohio over the location of their common bound¬ ary. Industrial development was spurred in the 1830s and ’40s by the arrival of canals and railroads. Glassmaking, now a major industry, was introduced in the late 1880s. A major commercial, industrial, and trans¬ portation centre, it handles considerable foreign commerce, and its port is one of the world’s largest shippers of bituminous coal. Its educational institutions include the University of Toledo (1872).
Toledo \t9-'le-do,\ Spanish \to-'la-tho\ ancient Toletum City (pop., 2001: 68,382), capital of Castile-La Mancha autonomous community, south-central Spain. On the Tagus River, it was the stronghold of the Car- pentini, a powerful Iberian tribe, when it was conquered by Rome in 193 bc. In the 6th century ad it became the Visigoths’ capital in Spain. Under the Moors (712-1085) it became a centre of Hebrew and Arabic culture, and it was noted for the manufacture of swords. Taken by Alfonso VI in 1085, it became the capital of New Castile and, in 1230, of the united kingdom of Castilla y Leon. Toledo was noted for its policy of religious tolerance toward Jews and Arabs during the 11th—15th centuries. It lost importance after Philip II moved the capital to Madrid in 1560. The French occupied Toledo during the Peninsular War (1808-14), and Nationalist forces besieged it (1936) in the Spanish Civil War. Known for its great wealth of notable architecture, the entire urban area is a national monu¬ ment. It was the home of El Greco.
Toledo, councils of Eighteen councils of the Visigothic church held in Toledo, Spain, from c. 400 to 702. Most attending were bishops, with some members of the lower clergy and the nobility. The decisions often affected civil and political affairs, and nearly all were convoked by kings. At the third Council of Toledo in 589, King Recared rejected his Arian faith and accepted Catholicism, an event that led to the unification of Visigothic Spain with Catholicism as the state religion.
Toleration Act (1689) Act of the British Parliament that granted free¬ dom of worship to Nonconformists, allowing them their own places of worship and their own teachers and preachers. The act did not apply to Catholics and Unitarians and continued the existing social and political prohibitions, such as exclusion from political office, that applied to dis¬ senters from the Church of England.
Tolkien \'tal-,ken,\ commonly \'tol-,kin\, J(ohn) R(onald) R(euel)
(b. Jan. 3, 1892, Bloemfontein, S.Af.—d. Sept. 2, 1973, Bournemouth, Hampshire, Eng.) South African-born English novelist and scholar. A pro¬ fessor of Anglo-Saxon and of English language and literature at Oxford (1925-59), Tolkien achieved fame for his heroic epic The Lord of the Rings (1954-56), consisting of The Fellowship of the Ring (film, 2001), The Two Towers (film, 2002), and The Return of the King. The Hobbit (1937) serves as an introduction to the series, The Silmarillion (1977) as a “prequel.” Set in the mythical past, the richly inventive tale chronicles the struggle between good and evil kingdoms to possess a magic ring that controls the balance of power in the world. In the 1960s its popularity with young people made it a sociocultural phenomenon, and starting in 2001 the release of a series of critically acclaimed films renewed interest in the epic.
toll Sum levied on users of certain roads, canals, bridges, tunnels, and other such travel and transportation infrastructure, primarily to pay for construction and maintenance. Tolls were known in the ancient world and were widely used in medieval Europe as a means of supporting bridge construction. Canal building, which became extensive in Europe in the 18th—19th centuries, was financed chiefly by tolls, and many major roads were built by private companies with the right to collect tolls. In the U.S. the National Road, built beginning in 1806, was initially financed through the sale of public land, but maintenance problems led Congress to autho¬ rize tolls. Toll roads diminished in the latter part of the 19th century, but the idea was revived with the Pennsylvania Turnpike in the 1930s, and after World War II many states built toll expressways. In many countries tolls are also used to finance long-span bridges, major tunnels, and high¬ ways. They have also been blamed for both reducing, and abetting, rush- hour traffic congestion. Canal tolls are still charged in some parts of the world, notably on the Suez and Panama canals.
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1920 I Tolly ► Tombstone
Tolly, Mikhail Barclay de See Mikhail, Prince Barclay de Tolly
Tolman, Edward C(hace) (b. April 14, 1886, West Newton, Mass., U.S.—d. Nov. 19, 1959, Berkeley, Calif.) U.S. psychologist. He taught at the University of California at Berkeley (1918-54). Although he was a behaviourist, he considered classical behaviourism too reductive, and he therefore emphasized behavioral wholes and unmeasurable “intervening variables” over a strict focus on isolated reflexes. He also advanced the concept of “latent learning” (implicit, indirect learning). His major work was Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men (1932).
Tolstoy, Aleksey (Konstantinovich), Count (b. Sept. 5, 1817, St. Petersburg, Russia—d. Oct. 10, 1875, Krasny Rog) Russian poet, novel¬ ist, and dramatist. A distant relative of Leo Tolstoy, he held various court posts. In the 1850s he began to publish comic verse, often satirizing gov¬ ernment bureaucracy. Among his popular historical novels is Prince Sere- brenni (1862). His dramatic trilogy about the 16th and 17th centuries— The Death of Ivan the Terrible (1866), Tsar Feodor Ioannovich (1868), and Tsar Boris (1870)—is written in blank verse and contains some of Russia’s best historical dramatic writing. His lyric poetry includes many love and nature poems, as well as Ioann Damaskin (1859), a paraphrase of St. John of Damascus’s prayer for the dead.